Charcoal is the most important energy source in Somalia, relied upon by 98% of all households in towns and cities for heating and cooking. A recent investigation by CORRECTIV indicates that the charcoal trade contributes to the large-scale deforestation of acacia forests, which is concentrated in the regions of Jubaland, Lower Shabelle and Bay. The situation is particularly grave in Bay, where the trade is rapidly accelerating soil erosion and desertification - fueling drought and starvation among the local population. In addition to causing environmental degradation, the charcoal trade constitutes a significant source of terrorist financing. Large parts of the charcoal trade are under the control of jihadist organisation, Al-Shabaab, which uses the multi-million-dollar revenue generated by this trade to wage war on the Somali government, perpetuating regional instability and violence. As well as being victims to Al-Shabaab's brutality, local people are also vulnerable to illicit taxation and extortion by this group. The charcoal trade is also connected to money-laundering, with profits from the illegal charcoal trade being laundered to conceal their illicit origins. Although the production of charcoal and its trade for export was outlawed by the Somali government in 2012, CORRECTIV's investigation uncovers state corruption and complicity in the industry. Large charcoal production facilities are located in government controlled-areas and Somali officials, across various levels, benefit from this trade through the taking of bribes. The Somali army, for example, demands its own 'tax', in exchange for turning a blind eye to the transport of this resource in government-controlled territory from areas under Al-Shabaab-control.

Transparency International's report focuses on allegations of corruption and organised crime linked to Zambia's Mukula trade, a valuable timber species. The investigation reveals widespread fraud and collusion involving government officials, timber traders, and organised crime syndicates. These groups exploit loopholes in regulations to illegally harvest and export Mukula timber, evading taxes and enriching themselves at the expense of Zambia's forests and economy. The report highlights how corruption undermines efforts to sustainably manage natural resources, exacerbating environmental degradation and depriving the country of revenue that could support development. It calls for a comprehensive investigation into these allegations, urging authorities to prosecute those involved and strengthen governance mechanisms to prevent future abuses. Transparency International emphasises the importance of transparency, accountability, and international cooperation to combat organised crime and corruption in Zambia's timber industry, safeguarding natural resources and promoting sustainable development.

The article from Mail & Guardian's Green Guardian delves into the multifaceted impacts of mining for electric vehicle batteries in Zambia, focusing on forced labour, human trafficking, and environmental crimes. It highlights how the surge in demand for minerals like cobalt and lithium has led to exploitative labour practices, including forced labor and human trafficking in Zambia's mining sector. These practices often affect vulnerable populations, including children, who are coerced into hazardous work conditions. Environmental degradation is another critical issue, with mining operations causing deforestation, soil erosion, and water contamination, threatening local ecosystems and community health. The article underscores the need for stringent regulations, enforcement of labor laws, and sustainable mining practices to mitigate these adverse effects. It calls for greater transparency and accountability in the supply chain, urging companies and governments to prioritize ethical sourcing, protect human rights, and minimize environmental harm in the pursuit of renewable energy solutions.

In September 2021, Milingo Lungu, the state-appointed provisional liquidator of Zambia's Konkola Copper Mines (KCM), was arrested and charged with money laundering. Lungu, who had been overseeing the operations of KCM since its liquidation in 2019, faced allegations of laundering more than $2 million. The charges were brought forward by Zambia's Drug Enforcement Commission, which accused Lungu of transferring the funds to his personal accounts. Lungu, however, dismissed the charges as baseless and politically motivated. The case has drawn significant attention due to its implications for Zambia's mining sector and the ongoing legal battles over KCM's ownership. The outcome of this case remains closely watched by financial professionals and stakeholders in the mining industry.

Research from NGO Verité found that up to 91% of Venezuela's and 87% of Colombia's gold exports are illegally produced, often controlled by organised crime groups backed by large-scale investments. Some of the world's most active organised crime groups and non-state armed groups are reportedly directly involved in the production and sale of such illegal gold, including Mexico's Sinaloa cartel and Italy's 'Ndrangheta mafia, as well as Brazilian, Russian, and Chinese syndicates._ Illegally produced gold from Latin America is exported to refineries (with the help of corrupt officials), melted down and blended with legally produced and scrap gold, or mixed to make alloys, then exported to global markets. Canada and the US are the biggest importers of Latin American gold & indeed, the latter's gold imports from Latin America exceed the volume of gold that Latin America claims to export. Whilst Switzerland is responsible for refining around 70% of globally-produced gold, some of the county's refineries have stopped purchasing gold from Latin American suppliers linked to illegal gold mining and human rights abuses, leaving a gap in the market which US refineries have rushed to fill, purchasing this surplus gold in Switzerland's place and introducing it to global markets. Indeed, Verité found that 90% of the Fortune 500 companies that filed conflict mineral disclosures last year (from across telecoms, IT, car manufacturers, and machinery producers) had purchased gold from refineries linked to illegally mined gold from Latin America. In 2022, over 320 illegal gold mines were counted in the nine states that make up Brazil's Legal Amazon. Major drug trafficking factions, including the Primeiro Comando da Capital, have infiltrated mining operations in Indigenous territories, running protection rackets, extorting taxes, controlling pits, and forging partnerships with gangs in neighbouring Venezuela to sell contraband minerals. Gold is also the top export of Bolivia, with the mining region transecting national parks and reserves.

In September 2021, the Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) uncovered a significant illegal logging and laundering scheme involving mukula timber in Zambia. The investigation revealed that over 10,000 mukula trees were illegally felled, exploiting land allocated to people with disabilities. The Zambia Agency For Persons With Disabilities (ZAPD), the Ministry of Community and Social Services, the Ministry of Tourism and Arts, and the office of the vice president were implicated. The scheme began in 2017 when land was allocated under the guise of empowering disabled individuals through farming. However, the land was used to harvest and launder mukula timber, with cutting permits repeatedly misused. The logs were stockpiled and transported by the Zambia National Service (ZNS) and a well-known logistics company. The profits did not benefit the intended disabled individuals but rather a small, well-connected elite. The investigation highlighted a revenue loss of approximately US$214 million due to unaccounted timber exports to China. The election of President Hakainde Hichilema brings hope for addressing this systemic corruption.

According to an InSight crime article, illegal mining is on the rise in southern Venezuela, even as Brazil tightens its grip on the region. This increase in illegal mining activities has led to significant environmental damage, human rights abuses, and security threats for both Venezuela and the region. The situation is further complicated by the involvement of criminal groups, including gangs, Colombian guerrilla groups, and paramilitary groups, who are competing for control of the country's valuable mineral resources, such as bauxite, coltan, diamonds, and gold. The Venezuelan government's inability to control these illegal activities has led to irreversible damage to the environment and a humanitarian crisis among the indigenous communities affected by the mining. The situation is so dire that some are calling for the interim government to take immediate action to halt illegal mining operations, protect indigenous and local communities, and implement public health policies to mitigate the spread of diseases caused by the mining.

An InSight Crime Article reports that in Venezuela, criminal groups and state forces are colluding in widespread cattle theft, significantly linked to drug trafficking and characterised by corruption and bribery. Criminal organisations, alongside corrupt officials and military personnel, orchestrate cattle theft from ranchers, using bribery and coercion to facilitate these operations. Stolen cattle are often sold to fund drug trafficking activities, with corrupt authorities turning a blind eye or actively participating for financial gain. This illicit network exploits the country's economic instability and legal system weaknesses, creating a lucrative cycle of crime that exacerbates violence and lawlessness in rural areas. The involvement of state forces adds a layer of complexity, undermining trust in government institutions and law enforcement. Addressing this issue requires dismantling the corrupt alliances between criminals and officials, strengthening legal frameworks, and ensuring accountability to combat the intertwined issues of bribery, corruption, and drug-related crime in Venezuela's cattle industry.

In Venezuela, illegal mining, particularly of gold, has led to severe environmental and social consequences, including the country's highest deforestation rates within the Amazon basin. Between 2016 and 2020, approximately 140,000 hectares of primary forest were destroyed, driven by unregulated mining activities that also resulted in significant mercury contamination and habitat destruction. This crisis is exacerbated by the involvement of armed groups and guerrillas who control the mining operations in the Amazonas and Bolivar states, often with the tacit approval or direct involvement of corrupt elements within the Venezuelan state. These groups commit widespread human rights abuses and pose significant threats to Indigenous communities. The Venezuelan government, under Nicolis Maduro, has been implicated in profiting from the illegal gold trade, which has become a crucial financial resource amidst the country's economic crisis and international sanctions. Efforts by international actors and neighboring countries to curb these activities face significant challenges due to the deep integration of illegal mining within the political and economic fabric of Venezuela. The situation is further complicated by the global nature of the gold supply chain, which often sees illegally mined gold laundered through multiple countries before reaching major markets.

In the Venezuelan Amazon, particularly within the states of Bolivar and Amazonas, deforestation has surged alarmingly due to illegal mining, expanded agriculture, and wildfires. Reports from 2022 highlight that over 140,000 hectares of primary forest were lost between 2016 and 2020, driven by these activities. The situation is exacerbated by the presence of Colombian guerrillas, such as the ELN, who, with alleged support from the Venezuelan government, exploit these regions for mining and agriculture, severely impacting protected areas like Caura, Canaima, and Yapacana national parks. The illegal operations include the construction of runways for drug trafficking and mineral smuggling, contributing significantly to the region's deforestation. This criminal activity not only threatens biodiversity but also undermines the efforts of local communities engaged in sustainable agroforestry, further destabilizing the region.

An examination of Venezuela's gold trade has uncovered extensive risks related to human rights abuses, environmental destruction, and the entanglement with criminal economies. The OECD highlights that since Venezuela's mining industry was nationalised in 2011, criminal activities have increasingly infiltrated the sector. Gold's high value, portability and difficulty in tracing makes it a perfect medium for illicit finance, meaning that the mineral is a crucial target for organised crime groups throughout the country. This explains a rapid increase in illegal mining that has caused widespread deforestation and environmental damage in protected areas, including the Venezuelan Amazon. A report by the Pulitzer centre explains this, also underlining the extent to which organised crime groups, including mafias and guerillas, control these illegal operations, notably creating clandestine airstrips to export their loot to foreign countries. The environmental impact of these criminal activities is immense. Gold mining is causing hydraulic ground erosion, deforestation, and the inappropriate use of mercury, according to Mongabay. Mercury contamination has been found in the blood, hair, and tissues of local communities, causing serious health issues.

According to The Star, approximately 16,000 tonnes of rare earth oxide were extracted illegally from five Malaysian states, Sik in Kedah, Lipis in Pahang, Pengkalan Hulu and Kuala Kangsar in Perak, and privately owned lands in Meranti and Jelebu in Negri Sembilan. These activities were conducted in forest reserves and private properties without proper authorisation. In comparison, 7,000 tonnes of rare earth carbonate, yielding 3,000 tonnes of rare earth oxide, was mined legally from a pilot project in Kenering, Perak. In terms of exports, the report found that Malaysia exported a total of 19,081 tonnes of rare earth oxide, valued at RM 975 million. With only 3,000 tonnes coming from the legal project in Kenering, the remaining 16,000 tonnes were identified as originating from illegal mining operations. In response, Nik Nazmi Nik Ahmad, the Minister of Natural Resources and Environmental Sustainability, acknowledged the illegal mining issue and emphasised the need for a strategic plan to develop the rare earth industry in Malaysia.

According to the Guardian, Suriname, the most forested country in the world, is facing significant threats to its forests due to increased_ illegal gold mining and logging. This expansion has also violated the rights of Indigenous and tribal peoples by infringing on their ancestral lands. The Saamaka people, among other Indigenous groups, have voiced strong opposition to these illegal activities, that severely disrupt their livelihoods. Despite a 2007 ruling by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) mandating a stop to these harmful economic activities and to respect the territorial boundaries of the Saamaka, the judgement has been largely ignored by local companies and other actors in the region. Instead, a fourfold increase in deforestation on Saamaka lands has been observed. In addition, illegal gold mining operations in the region are often characterised by labour rights abuses, which have increased in the nation as a whole. Health risks due to exposure to toxic chemicals such mercury further devastate communities.

The article from National Geographic discusses the issue of jaguar poaching in Suriname, which is linked to Chinese immigrants in the country. These immigrants have established networks to hunt jaguars, process their bodies, and smuggle the products to China. The jaguars are "killed to order," turned into jewelry and a medicinal product called "glue," and smuggled out of Suriname in carry-on luggage on commercial airlines. This illegal trade in jaguar products has developed in the context of heavy Chinese investment in Suriname, which has brought in thousands of people who work as loggers, miners, and shop owners. The influx of Chinese citizens has likely expanded the domestic market for jaguar parts in Suriname. This case is emblematic of a much larger, well-organised network of international jaguar trafficking.

An article by ANI News details the extent of the illegal timber business in Suriname, largely driven by Chinese companies, which own over half of the logging concessions in the country. After illegal exploitation, logged timber is sold online through hard-to-track companies. As a consequence, Suriname loses approximately 100 million euros annually due to illegal logging, with the money flowing to criminal cartels. Suriname produces nearly 1.5 million cubic metres of wood yearly, with China and India being the primary buyers. Despite efforts to monitor illegal activities using technology, the vast area of rainforest makes control challenging. Corruption is also widespread, with officials and concession holders implicated in illegal activities. ANI News explains that the significant discovery of containers filled with illegal timber indicates potential involvement by customs officials.

According to the Horn Observer, the increasing artisanal gold mining in the Golis mountains of northeastern Somalia has become a significant target for taxation by militant groups Al Shabaab and Islamic State. The village of Milxo is notably at the centre of this activity. Gold mining in Milxo involves two main practices, surface mining and deep cast mining. Both lack proper permits and safety measures, leading to frequent accidents. The gold mining operations produce an estimated 300 kg of gold annually, worth about $1.5 million, which is mostly smuggled to the UAE to avoid taxes. Al Shabaab has aggressively campaigned to control this lucrative trade, imposing a taxation scheme on miners and buyers, despite the presence of Puntland and international counterterrorism forces. The group's ability to leverage the rough terrain, financial constraints of local governments, and unregulated mining activities enhances their operational capabilities. This poses a threat to international stability and maritime traffic. The ongoing conflict and lack of effective governance in the area have overall allowed Al Shabaab to exploit the gold trade, funding their insurgency.

The article reports on a criminal investigation by Swiss authorities into alleged timber pillaging in Senegal and The Gambia. The investigation targets a Swiss timber company accused of illegally sourcing timber from these West African countries, where deforestation and environmental degradation are significant concerns. Local communities and environmental groups accuse the company of exploiting loopholes in regulations, conducting illegal logging, and contributing to habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity. Swiss authorities are probing potential violations of Swiss laws on economic crime and environmental protection. The case underscores broader issues of corporate responsibility, environmental stewardship, and the exploitation of natural resources in developing countries. It highlights the need for international cooperation and stricter enforcement of laws to combat illegal logging and protect vulnerable ecosystems.

A report by Enact Africa details how illegal mining in Senegal, particularly in the south-eastern Kedougou region, has caused immense tax revenue losses and severe environmental degradation. Illegal miners, predominantly Chinese groups, entered Kedougou in 2017, where they initially operated in buffer zones by paying legitimate local Ghanaian companies for the use of their licences to mine illegally. Following this illegal activity, the region has faced severe water pollution. The Niokolo-Koba National Park, a protected zone, has also been infiltrated by illegal miners, damaging the ecosystem. Bribery and corruption fuel in large part this illegal mining in the region. . Indeed, bribes ranging from CFA 12 million to 16 million (US$20,491 to US$27,321) per week are paid to local officials and park authorities to allow mining operations to continue. Bribes also extend to local leaders, who are paid to remain silent about the environmental damage and community disruptions. Overall, it is estimated that the Senegalese government loses approximately CFA 4 billion (US$6.83 million) annually due to illegal mining activities. The corruption and illegal mining practices also harm local economies, exacerbating poverty and limiting legitimate economic development.

According to Mongabay, intensive illegal logging, driven by growing consumer demand in China, has decimated Pterocarpus erinaceus (rosewood) trees in Senegal's southern region of the Casamance, which borders the Gambia.. Despite the introduction of an export ban and increased border patrols, trafficking has worsened, with the Gambia becoming a hub for smuggling rosewood to China from the Casamance region in Senegal. It has been reported that approximately 1.6 million rosewood trees were illegally logged from the Casamance and exported from the Gambia to China between June 2012 and April 2020. The inefficacy of bans and patrols can in part be attributed to the high levels of unemployment and poverty in the region that pushes locals to participate in the illegal trade. In addition, corruption exists on both sides of the Senegal-Gambia border, further facilitating trafficking and the illegal trade._ Deforestation from this illegal trade has disrupted local ecosystems, influenced rainfall, and overall decreased agricultural productivity. This affects local communities that rely on the forest for livelihoods.

The biggest fraud investigation in Papua New Guinea (PNG) led to the uncovering of the misappropriation of approximately US$75 million from a trust fund linked to the Ok Tedi mine, a controversial mine accused of causing severe environmental damage to its surrounding community over the last few decades. The mine led to one of the worst environmental disasters, with around two billion tons of untreated mining waste being discharged from the mine. The fraud investigation discovered a money laundering and misappropriation scheme, finding that funds intended to go to the PNG's Western Province were instead improperly paid to the OK Tedi Fly River Development Foundation and their Australian law firm. A prominent Australian lawyer was arrested on multiple charges relating to the misappropriation of the funds.

An undercover investigation by Global Witness exposed bribery for palm oil in Papua New Guinea. The investigation involved secretly filming a palm oil executive who admitted to paying bribes to public officials in exchange for logging permits and access to land. The executive was from East New Britain Resources Group (ENB), one of the largest logging and palm oil firms operating in Papua New Guinea. The bribes to a government minister typically ranged from 50,000 to 100,000 Papua New Guinean kina ($14,000-28,000). The CEO of ENB was also filmed describing a tax evasion scheme. Another palm oil firm, Tobar Investment, was caught discussing payments to a special police unit to suppress villagers opposed to their plantations. The palm oil from ENB has been used by major consumer goods companies, which severed ties with ENB after the investigation. This case highlights the role of political corruption in deforestation and the exploitation of Papua New Guinea's rich biodiversity.

A Global Witness investigation has revealed that a rubber plantation on Manus Island, Papua New Guinea (PNG), controlled by Malaysian-owned Maxland Limited, is likely a front for illegal logging. As a result, the logging operations carried out by this company have had devastating effects on the island's biodiversity. Maxland's permits for timber exploitation on the island are allegedly unlawfully obtained, breaching numerous PNG Forestry Act sections. This has created allegations of bribery surrounding Maxland's rubber project. In addition, Maxland had promised, Indigenous locals economic benefits from the plantation, such as_ new infrastructure, poverty alleviation, and employment, which failed to materialise. Evidence suggests that the company instead has exploited the valuable local tropical hardwoods, regardless of the environmental destruction this may cause. The project has sparked conflicts amongst the local community due to its subsequent environmental degradation and its creation of social issues, which have disproportionately impacted women and lead to violence and protest.

Sources increasingly suggest that logging concessions are used by corrupt politicians as a tool for building personal wealth. The Governor of the country's Oro province has been a vocal critic of the logging cartels operating in the region over the past decade, describing all such logging ventures as unlawful, as they don't have informed consent of landowners (and, indeed, a report by Chatham House has deemed at least 70% of logging in the country illegal). While loggers may seek specific tree species with high timber value (for example, Papua New Guinea rosewood (Pterocarpus indicus)), much of this logging activity nevertheless involves the indiscriminate felling of trees, which are subsequently taken to log yards and sorted through, with the high value timber selected at this stage. According to a 2017 National Risk Assessment by the Bank of Papua New Guinea, illegal logging in the country poses a significant threat to money laundering. The assessment stated that there are strong indicators of large-scale corruption and illegal logging in the forestry sector in the country which result in high levels of proceeds of crime. It is widely accepted that the problem is widespread and that the lost revenue is extensive. A 2021 report noted that according to online company filings in Papua New Guinea, the country's commercial banks have provided at least K300 million (USD 79 million) in available credit to the top five log exporting companies since 2000. However, nearly two-thirds of the registered financing transactions are for an unspecified amount, and the top five exporters only account for 52% of total log exports. As such, the total credit made available to the entire logging industry could reasonably be more than three times this amount.

A report by Global Witness has revealed the extent of the human rights abuses linked to the palm oil industry in Papua New Guinea (PNG). A range of severe violations against local communities and workers are exposed in the report, implicating three major PNG oil producers, East New Britain Resources Group (ENB), Rimbunan Hijau Group (RH), and Bewani Oil Palm Plantations Ltd (Bewani). These companies are accused of using violence and coercion to eliminate any opposition to the extension of their production. Villagers resisting land acquisition and plantation activities are coerced into compliance through threats and physical violence. As a result, large-scale land grabs for palm oil plantations have resulted in the displacement of hundreds of families in PNG. Exploiting corrupt individuals within the national police force the Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary, the companies intimidate villagers. Reported incidents include late-night raids where individuals were beaten and detained at gunpoint. In addition, the companies' employees often face exploitative practices. ENB has, for example, been reported to use child labour on their plantations, with children as young as ten reportedly working in hazardous conditions. Workers also often lack proper safety equipment, and safety and health incidents are often unreported or inadequately addressed._ Moreover, there are concerns over corrupt business practices across these companies, with ENB executives having admitted to bribing government officials to secure logging permits and land access.

A joint investigation by InSight Crime and the Igarapé Institute has revealed that illegal timber harvesting is rampant in the forests of the Amazon's tri-border regions, covering Peru, Brazil and Colombia. The investigation highlights how multinational networks target valuable hardwood species, falsifying logging and transport permits to legitimise the timber and export it. In order to further conceal the illicit activity, the timber may also be transported to places such as Leticia, Colombia, where traffickers are able to avoid certain taxes and controls. The scale of this illegal timber trafficking is extensive, with a 2012 World Bank report finding that about 80% of Peru's timber is illegally extracted. Another aspect of this illegal trade is the exploitation of Indigenous community members by timber bosses, or "patrones,". The latter will promise jobs and earnings that almost always fail to materialise. For example, the Matses Indigenous community entered into an agreement with timber patron Teodulfo Palomino Ludeña, who falsified documents and harvested excess timber, leading to fines and permits for the community. Timber brokers are also involved in laundering illegal timber, using their companies to legitimise illegal wood from the Amazon.

The article titled "Cocoa and gunshots: The struggle to save a threatened forest in Nigeria" published on Mongabay, discusses the struggle to save Nigeria's Omo Forest Reserve from deforestation caused primarily by cocoa farming. The reserve, which provides habitat for animals such as forest elephants and drinking water for Lagos, has lost more than 7% of its tree cover over the past two decades. Thousands of small farmers, seeking fertile soil and a respite from poverty, have illegally settled in the reserve. The government is hesitant to evict them as it would disrupt their livelihoods and require significant funding. Instead, the focus is on preventing more farmers from invading Omo. This is the goal of rangers who patrol Omo's remaining forests looking for footprints and listening for chainsaws and gunshots. Despite their efforts, the reserve is too big for the relatively small team to effectively monitor in its entirety.

In a striking move against environmental conservation, Peru enacted Law 31973, which has significantly altered its Forest and Wildlife law, leading to increased deforestation and legal controversies. Passed hastily in December 2023, this law pardons all historical illegal deforestation for agriculture before January 2024 and dismantles future legal constraints, effectively opening up vast tracts of the Peruvian Amazon to unchecked agricultural expansion. This legislative change was influenced by powerful agricultural and business interests, notably the country's main private business federation, CONFIEP, which lobbied intensely for these amendments. The law's enactment has sparked widespread domestic and international criticism for its potential environmental and human rights impacts, particularly on indigenous communities. These communities, who have seen 30 of their environmental defenders killed between 2010 and 2023, are at increased risk as their ancestral lands are threatened by expanding agricultural activities. Critics argue that the law not only contravenes Peru's commitments under various international environmental agreements but also undermines the rights and protections for indigenous peoples. Resistance to the law is growing, with various civil society groups, indigenous organisations, and regional governments calling for its repeal. They argue that the law was passed without proper consultation and violates both human rights and environmental protection statutes. The regional government of San Martín has even filed a claim of unconstitutionality against the law. Internationally, the law has raised concerns about Peru's commitment to global forest conservation efforts, particularly in light of the upcoming European Union Deforestation Regulation set to take effect in December 2024.

A study by the Terrorism, Transnational Crime and Corruption Center (TraCCC) at George Mason University has revealed significant discrepancies in timber trade values between Peru and its trading partners. This suggests significant issues with money laundering, tax evasion, and corruption. Firstly, the study shows that over-invoicing of timber exports to China and the Dominican Republic is constant. This practice demonstrates a high likelihood of money being laundered through illicit transfers to foreign countries. By inflating export values, exporters can move larger amounts of money than officially declared. In addition, under-invoicing of timber exports is a common practice for Peruvian timber traffickers. The undervaluing of timber exports to countries such as Mexico and the USA is a strategy used to lower reported profits and thus evade taxes. Exporters often mislabel products to benefit from less stringent controls, which may also involve bribery of customs officials to overlook such discrepancies.

In the Peruvian Amazon, the Mashco Piro tribe, reputed to be the world's largest Indigenous tribe still living in voluntary isolation, have been encroached on by a logging company, whose workers have been penetrating deeper into their territory since 2010. This encroachment has led to violent confrontations, with a Catahua worker killed by the tribe in 2022. Despite Indigenous people and their advocates stating that these activities violate national and international law aimed at protecting the unique rights of highly vulnerable peoples who have live in voluntary isolation, allegations of "possible forced contact", and calls from the U.N. special rapporteur on Indigenous rights for Catahua to halt logging, the Peruvian government has not intervened. This case highlights the human rights abuses linked to illegal logging, as the intrusion into the Mashco Piro's territory not only disrupts their way of life but also puts them in mortal danger.

According to InSight Crime, the "Patrones de Ucayali", a criminal group led by Juan Miguel Llancari Gálvez and Jorge Edilberto Alvarez Choquehuanca, developed an intricate network of illegal timber trafficking in Peru. The network was involved in felling trees in the Peruvian Amazon and laundering illegal timber through corrupt officials and falsified documents. Investigation into the mid-level criminal group began in 2015, when police detected suspicious paperwork related to Timber Transport Permits (GTFs). Following this, police surveillance, phone taps and undercover operations revealed the network's operations, involving loggers, forgers, transporters, and corrupt officials. However, corruption and tip-offs allowed the network's leaders to evade arrest. InSight Crime also highlights the involvement of the Bozovich family in this criminal network. Major players in Peru's timber industry, the Bozovich family, were suspected to operate through a series of shell companies, allowing them to launder proceeds from illegal timber trafficking with relative impunity.

Peru's forests, crucial for global sustainability, face severe threats from illegal logging driven by high global demand for timber. Between 2001 and 2018, deforestation rates soared, with illegal logging being a significant contributor. This case study focuses on the financial crimes associated with this deforestation, particularly trade mis-invoicing, which facilitates tax evasion, fraud, and money laundering. A Trade Discrepancy Analysis (TDA) revealed substantial discrepancies in trade data between Peru and its major trading partners, including the USA, China, Mexico, and the Dominican Republic, from 2009 to 2018. For instance, discrepancies with the USA averaged at US$1.5 million per year, peaking in 2013. These discrepancies often indicated under-invoicing by Peruvian exporters to conceal profits and evade taxes, and over-invoicing by importers to shift money illicitly. The analysis also highlighted the lack of stringent auditing and regulatory oversight, which allows such discrepancies to persist and exacerbate deforestation without adequate legal repercussions. This case underscores the urgent need for enhanced inter-institutional cooperation and stricter auditing to curb illegal timber trade and protect Peru's forests.

An investigation by The Bureau of Investigative Journalism (TBIJ), Mongabay, and Ojo Público has revealed that PepsiCo has potentially used palm oil sourced from deforested lands in eastern Peru. This land is claimed by the Shipibo-Konibo people. The palm oil, entering PepsiCo's supply chain through a Peruvian consortium called Sol de Palma, is mixed with oil from Ocho Sur, a company linked to significant deforestation and Indigenous rights violations. Indeed, Ocho Sur has been associated with 15,500 hectares of forest loss over the past decade, partly on land claimed by the Santa Clara de Uchunya community of Shipibo-Konibo people. Despite pledges to ensure a deforestation-free palm oil supply by the end of 2022 and to achieve net zero operations by 2040, PepsiCo products continue to use palm oil potentially linked to illegal deforestation. Ocho Sur denies responsibility for the deforestation and community division, attributing past actions to the companies it acquired. Meanwhile, the Santa Clara de Uchunya community continues to fight for recognition and protection of their land. The issue has been further exacerbated by the Peruvian government's loosening of deforestation regulations.

The article titled "Illegal logging takes big toll on Mexico City's crucial forests" published on NBC News, uncovers the devastating impact of illegal logging on the forest-covered southern half of Mexico City. The forests, which recharge aquifers supplying nearly 20 million people and help clean the city's polluted air, have been severely depleted. Alfredo Gutiérrez, a local resident, laments that the forest has been "finished off". The article suggests that organised crime gangs may have moved into the illegal logging business, possibly due to the federal government's crackdown on the sale of contraband gasoline and diesel. In response, Mexico City authorities have identified criminal groups behind illegal logging and have mounted operations involving hundreds of police officers and soldiers who raided clandestine sawmills in the mountains.

According to Ojo Publico, park ranger Victorio Dariquebe Gerewa, was ambushed and killed on April 19, 2024, in Queros, Madre de Dios, Peru. His murder is linked to his efforts against illegal mining in the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve. Victorio had been receiving threats from illegal miners. These miners significantly threaten the reserve's ecosystem through deforestation, habitat destruction, and pollution from their activities. Ojo Publico explained that the region also faces substantial environmental crimes related to drug trafficking. Coca cultivation in Kosñipata has surged, increasing by 64% between 2018 and 2022, and is linked to the production of narcotics, further destabilising the area. Illegal logging and unregulated road construction exacerbate these issues, leading to widespread environmental degradation. Victorio's death marks the 34th murder of an environmental defender in Peru since 2013.

According to Mongabay, concerns were raised amongst prosecutors and environmentalists as a Peruvian court overturned a prior ruling. Indeed, in December 2020, a Peruvian court overturned a previous judgement against employees of the cacao company Tamshi SAC, absolving them of crimes related to illegal deforestation in the Amazon. This decision followed a significant lobbying effort by the company, but could lead to dramatic negative impacts in terms of combating deforestation. Tamshi SAC, formerly Cacao del Perú Norte SAC, cleared nearly 2,000 hectares of primary rainforest without proper permits and was fined 129 million soles by Peru's Environmental Assessment and Enforcement Agency (OEFA). The company's officials, previously sentenced for illegal timber trafficking and obstruction, saw their sentences dismissed in December 2020. Environmental advocates argue the court's decision sets a harmful precedent, undermining efforts to enforce environmental laws in Peru. The Ministry of the Environment plans to appeal the ruling to the Supreme Court.

A report by the Organisation of American States details how the Los Topos Del Frio organised crime group developed an extensive illegal gold network in Peru. The network managed every aspect of the illegal gold supply chain, comprising illegal miners, transport companies, processing plants, illegal gold exporters and foreign financiers. Los Topos Del Frio paid illegal miners to extract gold, before concealing the extracted minerals in local buildings and warehouses. The gold was then transported in vehicles belonging to transport companies linked to the Los Topos network, before being processed and transformed into gold bars. The gold was then delivered to the port of Callao after being purchased by two foreign nationals based in Peru who financed the illegal operation. The foreign financiers used multiple shell companies and trade-based money laundering to export the illegal gold, hiding it among declared exports of copper, silver, and zinc. The Integral Registry of Mining Formalization (REINFO) was also involved in hiding this illicit activity. The Los Topos network encompassed numerous small-scale and artisanal miners, along with consortiums listed in REINFO as being in the process of formalisation. This registry provided protections that facilitated the transport and processing of illegal gold within the country, effectively concealing its unlawful origins.

The article titled "Paraguayan authorities complicit in illegal razing of country's forests by EU-linked agribusiness" published on Earthsight, reveals the complicity of Paraguayan authorities in the illegal deforestation of the country's forests by EU-linked agribusiness. The article is part of Earthsight's "Grand Theft Chaco" series, which exposes the links between illegal deforestation for cattle ranching in the Paraguayan Chaco and leather used by car giants in Europe. The investigation focuses on PNCAT, the protected land belonging to the Ayoreo Totobiegosode people, including some of the last uncontacted groups in the world. The entire Chaco ecosystem is under intense attack by ranchers and soy growers, leading to the loss of its native forests and rich biodiversity. Two ranches within PNCAT, Caucasian SA and Cooperativa Chortitzer, illegally cleared over 2,700 and 500 hectares of forests respectively between 2018 and 2019 in contravention of government resolutions. Another farm, Yaguareté Porã, has a long history of illegal land dealings and pasture development within PNCAT dating back nearly 20 years._Earthsight was able to link hides from PNCAT to Italian automotive leather giant Conceria Pasubio and on to BMW and Jaguar Land Rover.

According to the U.S. Bureau of International Labour Affairs, there is strong evidence of forced labour, child labour, and other labour violations in cattle raising areas of Brazil and Paraguay, specifically in the Brazilian State of Mato Grosso do Sul and in the Paraguayan Department of Boquerón. Indeed, in Brazil and Paraguay's extensive cattle-raising industries, employers are using coercive recruitment and employment practices. These primarily affect rural and indigenous populations that are falsely promised improved livelihoods. The growing global demand for beef is driving the expansion of cattle operations in these countries, exacerbating the risk of forced labour. In both countries, small and medium cattle producers, supplying to larger international slaughterhouses, often use advance payments to trap workers in debt bondage. Workers face coercion, threats, and restrictions on their freedom, with employers commonly retaining their identification documents. The remote locations of cattle ranches and workers' reliance on employers for food and housing further contribute to conditions that facilitate forced labour.

According to the Guardian, illegal gold mining in Peru's Loreto region is devastating local waterways and forests, impacting Indigenous communities who rely on these resources. The rapid expansion of gold mining has been destroying the Nanay River, a critical water source for local communities. High gold prices and a lack of government oversight have driven the increase of illegal mining in the area, with 122 new cases identified between 2021 and 2023. These activities involve the use of dredging rafts and other equipment to extract gold from the river. However, this mining process contaminates the water with toxic substances like mercury, which disrupts the natural flow of water and contaminates it. The illegal miners have also encroached upon protected areas and Indigenous reserves, causing environmental damage and illegal deforestation. The pollution of the Nanay River has led to a severe degradation of its water quality, compromising a vital source of drinking water for the 170,000 Indigenous inhabitants. This contamination has also resulted in numerous health issues among the local population.

According to Al Jazeera, large-scale soy plantations in Paraguay have been encroaching on traditional Indigenous land, leading to deforestation, land dispossession and severe environmental contamination. The expansion of soy production threatens the livelihoods of the Ava Guarani Indigenous community, whose traditional lands are now heavily polluted, causing health issues and damaging crops and livestock. The transformation of forests into soy monocultures has devastated the natural environment that once sustained the Ava Guarani. Pesticides like glyphosate, 2,4D, and paraquat, which are banned in several countries, are commonly used in these plantations, leading to toxic contamination of the land. This has created severe health issues for the locals, including respiratory illnesses, diarrhoea, and vomiting, attributed to pesticide exposure. In addition, the expansion of soy production has led to a high rate of deforestation in the area and to numerous land evictions. In response, the United Nations Human Rights Committee (UNHCR) ruled that Paraguay violated the rights of the Ava Guarani by not controlling pesticide use and failing to prevent contamination. Despite this ruling, the community continues to face challenges, with agribusiness and government corruption obstructing change.

In 2022, two government ministers in Paraguay were dismissed for alleged ties to an organised criminal group in the country. The Interior Minister and the head of the National Emergency Agency were both fired for links to a Brazilian drug trafficker with operations in Paraguay. This trafficker was tied to a criminal group allegedly moved cocaine by air from other countries, especially Bolivia, into Paraguay and then on to consumer markets in Europe and Africa. In addition, a cattle rancher in Paraguay was arrested for his alleged part in the drug trafficking operation, where he laundered proceeds from the operation through various businesses he owned. During police raids connected with the case, thousands of cattle were seized as well. This highlights the interconnected nature of organised crime in the country with key industries that lead to deforestation, in this case namely the cattle industry.

The article titled "Paraguayan authorities complicit in illegal razing of country's forests by EU-linked agribusiness" published on Earthsight, reveals the complicity of Paraguayan authorities in the illegal deforestation of the country's forests by EU-linked agribusiness. The article is part of Earthsight's "Grand Theft Chaco" series, which exposes the links between illegal deforestation for cattle ranching in the Paraguayan Chaco and leather used by car giants in Europe. The investigation focuses on PNCAT, the protected land belonging to the Ayoreo Totobiegosode people, including some of the last uncontacted groups in the world. The entire Chaco ecosystem is under intense attack by ranchers and soy growers, leading to the loss of its native forests and rich biodiversity. Two ranches within PNCAT, Caucasian SA and Cooperativa Chortitzer, illegally cleared over 2,700 and 500 hectares of forests respectively between 2018 and 2019 in contravention of government resolutions. Another farm, Yaguareté Porã, has a long history of illegal land dealings and pasture development within PNCAT dating back nearly 20 years._Earthsight was able to link hides from PNCAT to Italian automotive leather giant Conceria Pasubio and on to BMW and Jaguar Land Rover.

In Panama, the illegal timber trade, particularly the trade of the valuable cocobolo wood, has caused grave deforestation and exacerbated crime in ports. A report by InSight Crime explains that on March 28 and 31 2022, Panamanian police seized two containers in Colón, carrying around 850 pieces of cocobolo wood, destined for China. Interceptions of illegal cocobolo wood shipments occur frequently along the Panama Canal. In the Darién province along the Colombian border this logging has been extensive, with 20% forest cover loss in seven years. In Panama's ports, some of the busiest in the region due to the Panama Canal, timber trafficking takes place alongside drugs, arms trafficking, and human smuggling. Corruption is also rampant, with the Army, police, Panama Canal, and port staff implicated in facilitating illegal activities. Timber traffickers benefit from connections within the ports, easing the movement of illegal wood shipments.

A report by the American Bar Association analyses the recent closure of the Cobre Panamá copper mine in Panama. Following the Supreme Court of Panama's ruling that the multi-year contract with First Quantum was unconstitutional, the government announced its plan for the mine's immediate and definitive closure. Several issues were revealed regarding this contract, including having been negotiated and signed without adequate transparency and without proper public consultation. There were significant environmental concerns related to the operations of the Cobre Panamá mine, and the contract did not include measures needed to mitigate this, leading to such legal challenges. Furthermore, the working conditions at the Cobre Panamá mine were reportedly poor, with issues such as anti-union policies, low wages, and unsafe working conditions being rampant. This led the contract to be highly criticised for its enabling of labour rights violations. The mining industry is significant for Panama's economy, contributing 7% to its GDP and accounting for 1% of global copper output. However, the closure aims to address the outdated Mineral Resources Codes, inadequate inspections, and poor labour conditions highlighted in the 2020 IGF Mining Policy Framework Assessment. The mine's closure will result in approximately 40,000 job losses, and the government has yet to announce measures to mitigate this unemployment.

Nigeria's mining sector faces heightened risk of exploitation by foreign criminals due to issues around ineffective management of natural resources and opaque extraction processes. China is a high-risk jurisdiction, with several Chinese nationals having been arrested in Nigeria for their involvement in illegal mining since 2020. In one case, police in Zamfara State arrested two Chinese nationals for allegedly engaging in illegal mining in the Bukkuyum locality, where all mining activities are banned due to local conflict. Most of the illicit mining in Nigeria is driven by international criminal networks and foreign demand for key minerals such as gold. Local actors, however, often play a crucial role in facilitating the illicit mining and trafficking of these minerals. This issue is compounded by the fact that regulators and security forces in the country have not prioritised security and anti-corruption efforts across the mining sector.

According to AP News, illegal logging activities in Nigeria's Omo Forest Reserve are increasing rapidly as a consequence of corruption and lax enforcement of environmental regulations. The Omo Forest Reserve is a protected area, but with timber in the outer, legally logged regions becoming scarce, loggers are encroaching deeper into the conservation zone. Issues such as uncontrolled cocoa farming and increased poaching are behind this illegal expansion. Illegal logging in the region is facilitated by rampant corruption and bribery. Loggers frequently bypass regulations by paying off government officials. Rangers report seeing previously arrested individuals back in the forest, demonstrating a widespread ability to avoid punishment. Forest guards also note that higher authorities override their attempts to prevent illegal logging, making them feel helpless. Illustrative of this corrupt behaviour, the Ogun state government, which owns the reserve, claims it is replanting more trees than are being cut, a claim that has been widely debunked. Such lax enforcement is caused by a local economic dependency on timber logging, which makes strict enforcement politically challenging.

A report by The Independent has highlighted the economic, social and environmental impacts of cattle open grazing in Nigeria. While some argue that open grazing sustains the livelihood of the Fulani pastoralists and preserves cultural heritage, others claim it serves as a mechanism for strategic land grabs, contributing to land conflicts and environmental degradation. First of all, it is being increasingly demonstrated that open grazing, where herders allow their animals to graze freely over large areas of land, is in reality inefficient and harmful to the environment. Findings hold that this traditional practice leads to deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution. As a consequence, these practices have disrupted the local economy and contributed to conflict between Fulani pastoralists and farmers over land. In addition, Nigeria's history of land tenure has often favoured elites over indigenous communities, exacerbating tensions. Efforts to regulate open grazing, such as the anti-open grazing bill currently in the Nigerian Senate, aim to establish regulations for ranching and address conflicts between herders and farmers. However, the bill faces opposition, with some arguing that the National Assembly lacks the authority to legislate on this matter.

The article reports allegations against Okomu Oil Palm Company in Nigeria, accusing it of human rights abuses including forced evictions, land grabbing, and environmental damage. Local communities claim the company has violated their rights through intimidation and destruction of livelihoods without adequate compensation or consultation. These accusations are supported by a legal complaint filed with the National Human Rights Commission of Nigeria. Okomu Oil Palm Company denies these allegations, asserting its adherence to legal and ethical standards while highlighting its contributions to local development and employment. The company claims to operate within Nigerian laws and regulations, with engagements aimed at fostering community relations and sustainable practices. The case underscores ongoing tensions between corporate operations, community rights, and environmental protection in Nigeria's oil palm sector.

The article titled "INVESTIGATION: Inside illegal mining operations of notorious Nigerian terrorist" published on Premium Times, provides an in-depth look into the illegal mining operations run by Halilu Sububu, a notorious terrorist in Nigeria's North-west region. Sububu, a former gunrunner who mentored several other terrorists, has established a thriving illegal gold mining operation in the solid mineral-rich Bagega and other communities around Sumke forest in Anka Local Government Area of Zamfara State. Sububu's gang routinely abducts villagers who are compelled to work at the mines. The involvement of terrorists in illegal mining is not new, but Sububu and his gangs have taken over the running of the mines from the locals who are now forced to work for them usually without pay. The article suggests that terrorists like Sububu have diversified into mining to continue financing their terrorism activities.

According to a report by Mongabay, WOB Timber, a logging company based in Hamburg, German, was fined $4 million by a Hamburg Court for illegally trading Myanmar teak, violating EU sanctions. It was revealed that WOB Timber imported teak from Myanmar by falsely declaring it as originating from Taiwan. By doing so, the company violated EU sanctions on Myanmar wood imports, enforced between 2008 and 2011. In addition, it is frequent for Myanmar exporters to exaggerate the processing level of timber to evade the Special Goods Tax and pay reduced Myanmar Customs Tariff. Consequently, private companies such as WOB Timber, that trade with state-owned Myanma Timber Enterprise (MTE), benefit from these tax evasions. It was also found that WOB Timber used intermediaries in Croatia to bypass German law enforcement. The Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) revealed that WOB Timber paid Croatian firms to land Myanmar teak, circumventing the EU Timber Regulation.

In southeastern Myanmar, rubber production has been linked with conflict financing, according to a 2020 report by Forest Policy Trade and Finance Initiative. Particularly in the Tanintharyi Region, rubber has been used to finance long-standing ethnic conflicts involving various rebel groups and the national military (the Tatmadaw). Indeed, Mon businessmen, who are often the former commanders of the Mon National Liberation Army (MNLA), the armed wing of the New Mon State Party (NMSP), have used their connections to establish rubber plantations in northern Tanintharyi. The expansion of rubber plantations by these businessmen, backed by the NMSP, effectively finances the rebel group by providing economic resources and territorial control. The establishment of rubber plantations on lands designated as 'wastelands' or 'vacant lands' by the government allows Mon businessmen to gain official land use rights. However, this process disenfranchises Karen communities, who previously inhabited these lands before being displaced by the Tatmadaw, and finances the ongoing conflict.

According to a report by Global Witness, the military junta in Myanmar heavily relies on the country's gemstone industry for funding, including through rubies, sapphires, and other coloured stones. The military's exploitation of these minerals is illegal, since all mining licences expired in 2020. Despite this, mining has surged since the coup in 2021, with tens of thousands of informal miners exploited by the military and armed groups. In addition, the military systematically collects bribes from informal miners in key extraction areas. The complex supply chains obscure the origins of the gemstones, making it difficult for buyers to monitor ethical sourcing. Consequently, multinational jewelers may be exposed to rubies that are linked to the funding military abuses; only four of over 30 allegedly implicated companies have publicly declared that they have stopped sourcing from Myanmar.

A six-month investigation by Global Witness has revealed that the illegal mining of heavy rare earth minerals in Myanmar has led to severe human rights abuses and environmental devastation. Rare earth minerals have started to be predominantly sourced from Myanmar following the closure of many Chinese mines due to environmental concerns. These mining operations are largely illegal and occur in the semi-autonomous Kachin State, controlled by militias with ties to the Myanmar military junta. This situation has led to severe human rights abuses. Employees work in conditions of exploitation, with local workers, including children, employed in hazardous conditions without proper permits or legal protections. In addition, employees face discrimination, with Chinese workers occupying skilled positions, while Burmese workers do manual labour. Locals also face threats and violence from militia groups if they resist giving up their land for mining. Illegal mining in Myanmar also leads to environmental degradation, as the mining techniques used have poisoned local water sources and caused deforestation. Communities are losing access to clean drinking water, and their agricultural products are contaminated, causing illness. This has created a situation of significant displacement of local populations.

An article by Al Jazeera reports that ongoing conflict relevant to natural gas reserves in Mozambique's Cabo Delgado province has had dramatic repercussions on civilians. The discovery of natural gas reserves off Cabo Delgado's coast in 2009 by Texas-based Anadarko was initially believed to have the possibility to create local opportunity and economic prosperity. However, when TotalEnergies and its partners invested $20 billion in developing these resources local communities were, in reality, faced with displacement and the clearing of vast lands for infrastructure. In 2021, the project was suspended due to escalating violence by a local armed group known as al-Shabab. This group's violent campaign since 2017 has resulted in over 6,000 deaths and the displacement of a million people. To protect the liquified natural gas (LNG) project, Mozambican and international troops were deployed, leading to allegations of abuses against civilians. Displaced residents of Quitunda and other areas have reported raids, arrests, and violence perpetrated by soldiers. Hunger and lack of compensation for lost farmland and homes have left many in desperate conditions. Promises of improved living conditions have largely gone unfulfilled, causing hardship amongst the affected populations.

In Mozambique, illegal mining and associated financial crimes are becoming significant issues, with the mining sector increasingly exploited for money laundering and terrorism financing. Criminals involved in the illicit extraction of resources like gold and gemstones use fraudulent invoices, unregulated trade routes, and complex laundering schemes to legitimise their profits. This activity fuels organised crime and supports extremist groups, notably in conflict-prone areas such as Cabo Delgado. The UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is actively working to counter these trends in Mozambique. Efforts include training local law enforcement and financial institutions to identify and combat illicit financial flows linked to mining. The UNODC promotes regional cooperation to bolster regulatory frameworks and improve intelligence sharing. These measures aim to curtail the illegal exploitation of Mozambique's rich mineral resources, disrupt criminal networks, and ensure that the benefits of mining contribute to sustainable development and economic stability.

Timber smuggling from Mozambique's ancient forests to China, valued at $23 million annually, finances a brutal Islamist insurgency and supports a vast criminal network in northern Mozambique. This illicit rosewood trade, particularly from the threatened species pau preto, is linked to the Islamic State-affiliated militants in Cabo Delgado province. Despite international treaties restricting rosewood trade, a four-year investigation by the Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) exposed rampant illegal logging, corruption, and poor management of forest concessions. The insurgents exploit the trade to raise an estimated $1.9 million monthly, even collecting a 10% protection fee from firms for illegal logging. The rosewood, prized in China for luxury furniture, is often transported illegally and in raw log form, violating Mozambique's 2017 law against unprocessed timber export. The EIA's findings reveal extensive smuggling networks and inadequate enforcement, contributing to ongoing violence and significant deforestation in Mozambique, exacerbating the region's instability and environmental degradation.

The case of Mexico's avocado industry offers a compelling example of how economic opportunities can intertwine with illicit activities. Mexico is the largest supplier of avocados to the US, earning the fruit the moniker "green gold." Michoacán, a major avocado-growing region, has seen extensive deforestation, land conversion, and water scarcity as forests are cleared to make way for profitable avocado farms. The local government's Forest Guardian initiative identified 817 illegal avocado orchards, highlighting the scale of the problem. These illegal orchards came under scrutiny from the US ambassador to Mexico in early 2024, Ken Salazar, as he highlighted the need for stringent traceability measures to combat the export of avocados from illegal orchards to the US. The avocado trade from Mexico to the US has experienced significant growth, increasing from 121,600 metric tons in 2019 to approximately 135,000 in 2022. According to Climate Rights International (CRI), four out of five avocados consumed in the United States are imported from Mexico. This surge in demand has led to the widespread establishment of the illegal avocado orchards previously mentioned, often at the expense of the environment and local communities. The lucrative nature of the avocado trade has continued to attract the attention of organised crime cartels, which have diversified their activities over the years. For instance, cartels in the region have infiltrated the avocado trade, imposing "protection" fees on farmers, and their activities include illegal logging, extortion, kidnapping, arms trafficking and even murder. The profits from these activities are used to finance their broader criminal operations, embedding the avocado trade within a network of illicit financial flows.

According to the Star, the government of the Malaysian state of Sabah is pursuing taxes owed by companies involved in the evasion of the crude palm oil sales tax. In collaboration with the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission (MACC), the government has introduced a voluntary scheme allowing companies to pay their taxes by the end of 2023 without penalty. One notable case of tax evasion involved a former public servant arrested in May 2022 for allegedly evading millions of ringgit in crude palm oil sales tax. The suspect was detained following the arrests of two state government officials. These officials were implicated in receiving RM700,000 (approximately US$154,000) in bribes from a palm oil mill in Lahad Datu. The bribes were reportedly given to overlook the falsification of crude palm oil production quantities, resulting in an estimated tax evasion of RM2 million (approximately US$440,000) per month since 2015.

A report by Global Initiative details the many labour rights violations related to child labour, forced labour and discriminatory practices in Chihuahua, Mexico's forestry sector. In Chihuahua, organised crime groups, including drug cartels, forcibly recruit individuals, particularly young people, for illegal activities, including illegal logging.These workers endure exploitative conditions that include involuntary work, forced overtime, and hazardous environments. Organised crime groups exert control over them through threats, violence, and drug addiction, fostering a climate of coercion. In addition, child labour is prevalent in Chihuahua's forestry sector, particularly in rural areas where children often work alongside their parents to supplement family income. Children engaged in forestry work are exposed to dangerous work conditions, including handling heavy loads, exposure to sawdust, and working with machinery. Systemic discrimination against indigenous people and women is widespread in the sector. Indigenous workers are often paid less, subjected to the most dangerous tasks, and excluded from leadership positions. Women, particularly indigenous women, face significant barriers to employment in logging and sawmill operations.

The article titled "Are Mexican Avocados The Next 'Conflict Commodity'?" published on The Guardian, discusses the dark side of the booming avocado industry in Mexico. The industry, which is a multibillion-dollar one for Mexico, the world's largest producer, has attracted the attention of organised crime groups due to its profitability. These groups engage in both extortion and direct cultivation, usually on lands taken over from local farmers or carved out from protected woodlands. The state of Michoacán, a long-standing hotbed for criminal violence, is particularly affected. The article draws parallels between the avocado industry and conflict minerals, highlighting the increasing risk of association with killings, modern slavery, child labour, and environmental degradation when dealing with Michoacán suppliers and growers. The article also mentions the rise in violence due to turf wars among more than 12 criminal groups, including the notoriously violent Cartel Jalisco Nueva Generación, fighting for control over the avocado-producing regions and transport routes.

A report by Global Initiative details the shift in crime from drug cultivation to illegal logging in the Sierra Tarahumara region of Chihuahua, Mexico, due to decreased demand for opium gum. Drug Trafficking Organisations (DTOs) began heavily involving themselves in illegal logging around 2014-2015. DTOs can earn between MXN 50,000-70,000 per night from illegal logging, exploiting workers under threats of violence. Local mafias were also involved in this shift, albeit operating on a smaller scale compared to DTOs and rarely resorting to violence. They control logging operations, sawmills, and transportation, often involving familial clans. DTOs, on the other hand, engage in a range of criminal activities, including drug trafficking, extortion, and extreme acts of violence, including massacres and beheadings. Indigenous communities and environmental activists are heavily impacted by such threats and violence. They face displacement due to violence and land grabs by criminal groups. In addition, illegal logging and the cultivation of illicit crops contribute to significant deforestation. Finally, criminal groups use bribes and threats to secure cooperation from authorities. Local institutions often lack the resources and capacity to effectively combat organised crime.

According to Mongabay, the expansion of the soy industry in Hopelchén, Campeche, Mexico has led to devastating levels of deforestation of the Mayan jungle over the past two decades. The region lost at least 153,809 hectares of tree cover, driven by the rise of industrial agriculture and land privatisation. Despite the lack of official authorisation for deforestation, satellite images reveal extensive illegal clearing, primarily by Mennonite colonies, who have transformed vast forest areas into soy fields since 2004. This illegal deforestation has led to severe environmental degradation, including loss of biodiversity and disruption of local ecosystems. In addition, government policies and subsidies, such as those for productive conversion and contract agriculture, have further incentivised soy cultivation, notably by large-scale producers, at the expense of traditional corn farming and forest preservation. The unregulated deforestation has also affected the livelihoods of local communities, particularly beekeepers. Their income and way of life depend on the forest. However, the intensive use of pesticides associated with soy cultivation has led to significant bee deaths, triggering legal battles and community resistance. The devastation in Hopelchén is mirrored in other parts of the Yucatan Peninsula, with similar patterns of deforestation observed in municipalities like Tizimín and Bacalar.

According to InSight Crime, drug cartels in Mexico have expanded their activities into illegal logging, particularly in the forested areas of Chihuahua. This area is a significant part of the drug trafficking corridor known as the Golden Triangle. This growing overlap between illegal logging and drug trafficking is severely affecting Indigenous communities, especially the Tarahumara. The report cites a case where individuals were forced off their land by armed groups, highlighting the dangers faced by those opposing illegal logging. The cartel has become actively involved in illegal logging to clear land for poppy cultivation, pushing inhabitants off their ancestral lands. The situation in Chihuahua is exacerbated by widespread violence and corruption, with drug cartels, competing over the control over both drug and illegal timber routes. This violence has led to high homicide rates, with criminal groups targeting anyone opposing their activities. In addition, the article details the methods used by cartels to control the illegal timber trade, including extortion and violent takeovers of sawmills. In the town of San Juanito, a hub for wood trafficking, drug cartels have infiltrated the industry, forcing sawmills to process illegally sourced wood and laundering it into the legal supply chain.

Javier Duarte, former governor of Veracruz, Mexico, is implicated in a scheme where cattle ranching was used to launder money embezzled from public funds. An investigation by Animal Político found Duarte and his network purchased expensive cattle and large ranches, using them to clean hundreds of millions of pesos. This process allowed them to integrate illicit funds into the legitimate economy by taking advantage of the agricultural sector's cash-based transactions and lax oversight. Duarte, who governed from 2010 to 2016, had previously been convicted in 2018 for criminal association and money laundering, receiving a nine-year prison sentence. His case underscores the vulnerability of agriculture, especially cattle ranching, to financial crimes in Mexico. The revelations reflect ongoing difficulties in curbing corruption and organised crime, which increasingly infiltrate legitimate businesses to obscure the origins of illicit profits.

A report by The Vibes explains how Seputeh MP Teresa Kok raised concerns about alleged improprieties in the proposed sale and lease of land owned by the Malaysian Rubber Board (MRB). Kok, the predecessor of the current Plantation Industries and Commodities Minister Datuk Khairuddin Aman Razali, criticised the lifting of a moratorium on the sale and development of MRB real estate, which she had imposed. The alleged lifting of this moratorium by Datuk Khairuddin Aman Razali, without proper justification, raises questions about the legality and motivation behind this action. Indeed, the sale and lease of these lands appears suspicious, since both transactions value the land below market value. This substantial undervaluation could be seen as potentially causing financial loss to the state for private gain, by selling public assets at undervalued prices. This also raises concerns about the potential for corruption. The involvement of a foundation related to PAS, the Islamic political party in Malaysia, and the below-market rates suggest possible favouritism or cronyism, where decisions may be being made to benefit certain individuals. In addition, the transactions allegedly bypassed required approvals and proper procedures. The absence of such approvals and the subsequent denials by MRB point to a lack of transparency and accountability.

According to InSight Crime, drug cartels in Mexico have expanded their activities into illegal logging, particularly in the forested areas of Chihuahua. This area is a significant part of the drug trafficking corridor known as the Golden Triangle. This growing overlap between illegal logging and drug trafficking is severely affecting Indigenous communities, especially the Tarahumara. The report cites a case where individuals were forced off their land by armed groups, highlighting the dangers faced by those opposing illegal logging. The cartel has become actively involved in illegal logging to clear land for poppy cultivation, pushing inhabitants off their ancestral lands. The situation in Chihuahua is exacerbated by widespread violence and corruption, with drug cartels, competing over the control over both drug and illegal timber routes. This violence has led to high homicide rates, with criminal groups targeting anyone opposing their activities. In addition, the article details the methods used by cartels to control the illegal timber trade, including extortion and violent takeovers of sawmills. In the town of San Juanito, a hub for wood trafficking, drug cartels have infiltrated the industry, forcing sawmills to process illegally sourced wood and laundering it into the legal supply chain.

According to a 2024 article by Euractiv, there are significant issues raised by the amount of used cooking oil (UCO) imported by the UK and Ireland from Malaysia. Under EU rules, biofuels made from waste materials, including UCO, can be double counted towards renewable energy targets, which has incentivised producers to label palm oil (which is cheaper) as UCO and to charge more for it. Ireland, in particular, is heavily reliant on biofuels to decarbonise its transport system. The discrepancies between collected and imported UCO has raised concerns of biofuel fraud. Indeed, Malaysia has reported collecting 48-71 kilotonnes of UCO annually, while British and Irish authorities show 151 million litres of UCO imported from Malaysia in 2020. This troubling discrepancy suggests that substances such as palm oil, which are restricted in the EU, might be fraudulently labelled as UCO. Observing such gaps between export and import data, the International Council for Clean Transportation (ICCT) and Farm Europe have indicated potential fraud. To combat this issue, the European Biodiesel Board (EBB) has indicated support for the creation of a biofuels database to improve traceability. Meanwhile, the Irish government has set up a working group to address biofuel sustainability and potential fraud.

According to a report by Mongabay, the illegal expansion of palm oil production in Mexico, particularly in the areas Chiapas, Campeche, Tabasco, and Veracruz, has led to significant deforestation. Between 2014 and 2019, at least 5,400 hectares of forests and jungle were lost due to oil palm cultivation. Now, the plantations are beginning to encroach on protected areas, such as the La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve. During the 1990s, Mexican state programmes promoted palm oil cultivation, emphasising its superior economic benefits. This has pushed farmers towards the commodity, which has been very profitable for local communities. But now, research indicates that oil palm plantations have replaced not only cattle pastures and agricultural lands but also young forests and high jungle areas. Significant deforestation has been detected in municipalities like Benemérito de las Américas, Marqués de Comillas, Palenque, and Salto de Agua, and has affected critical ecosystems. As major companies begin to expand beyond permit areas, acquisition is becoming increasingly illegal, sometimes carried out without proper authorisation for land-use changes.

An investigation by the Associated Press revealed that human rights abuses, including slavery and rape, as well as child labour are prevalent in Malaysia's palm oil industry. The investigation documents widespread labour abuses, including forced labour, debt bondage, child labour and sexual harassment. Workers live in poor conditions and work long hours for minimal pay. Human rights violations also include physical violence and lack of medical care. In the face of such abuses, workers are unable to escape their situation of exploitation since they are hired on a day-to-day basis by subcontractors, and their passports are confiscated. In addition, women face sexual harassment and rape, with some cases involving minors. The Associated Press documents the case of a 16-year-old girl who was raped by her boss and threatened with an axe. Women perform the most difficult jobs, working in hazardous conditions and carrying heavy loads. This can cause long-term health issues, including collapsed wombs and miscarriages, that are left untreated. Major Western banks, financial institutions and brands have been linked to these abusive supply chains.

Despite international trade restrictions, illegally sourced Madagascar rosewood is being trafficked into Kenya. In one case from 2014, 34 containers of timber arrived at the Kenyan port of Mombasa from Madagascar heading to Hong Kong. While the timber arrived with a Certificate of Origin issued by the Madagascar Ministry of Forestry and Environment certifying the shipment as ordinary timber, the Kenyan Wildlife Service suspected the shipment contained Malagasy rosewood, namely Dalbergia - a protected species regulated by international trade. Since the 1990s, the species has been threatened due to unsustainable exploitation of the wood. The production of high-quality items such as furniture and musical instruments has led to increased consumer demand for Malagasy rosewood, particularly in China. Due to this, Madagascar made all trade in rosewood illegal in 2010, and the wood is listed on the CITES (the global convention which governs the legality of international wildlife trade), meaning the wood can only be traded with a special permit.

Madagascar has made significant strides in combating child labour, particularly in mica mining, where around 10,000 children are involved. Through the U.S. Department of Labor's "Combating Child Labour in Madagascar's Mica-Producing Communities" project, the country has implemented effective interventions to address this issue. These efforts focus on improving educational opportunities, enhancing community awareness, and promoting better working conditions. Key achievements include the establishment of child protection committees, community schools, and vocational training programs that offer alternatives to child labor. The project has also provided school kits and financial support to families, helping reduce the economic need for child labor. Moreover, collaboration with local authorities and stakeholders has strengthened the enforcement of labour laws and improved the monitoring of mica production sites. These comprehensive measures contribute to reducing child labour and fostering safer, more sustainable mica production practices.

According to Sky News, extensive illegal mining has transformed the shores of Lake Alaotra, in northern central Madagascar. The forest that once covered this area has been almost entirely replaced by mining shafts and mounds of rubble. Searching for precious gems, thousands of workers have settled in the area, and work in dangerous conditions to fight their economic situations, often defined by extreme poverty. The United Nations has warned that Madagascar is on the brink of the world's first climate-induced famine, with failed crops and dried rivers leading to widespread hunger. In addition, the conditions miners work in are highly dangerous. Safety measures and the equipment used are inadequate, creating hazardous conditions. Despite Madagascar's government signing agreements to stop deforestation, the implementation on the ground remains weak. The island, rich in natural resources like beryl, rubies, and sapphires, remains one of the poorest countries globally.

Approximately 360,000 children, or 33% of those aged between 5 and 15, work in Liberia, primarily in agriculture. A significant number are engaged in the production of rubber on smallholder farms and large-scale plantations, often in dangerous conditions and at the expense of their education. According to the United States Department of Labour, major contributing factors to child labour in Liberia's rubber sector include household poverty, the existence of worker quota production systems, the high cost of adult labour, a lack of awareness, limited access to education, and limited inspection and enforcement of labour standards. The "Actions to Reduce Child Labor (ARCH)" project was implemented in Liberia from December 2012 to April 2017, The project targeted 10,100 children engaged in or at risk of entering exploitative child labour in Liberia, with a focus on the rubber sector. In addition, the project targeted 3,700 vulnerable households for sustainable livelihoods promotion. The project operated in the counties of Montserrado, Margibi, and Nimba. By the end of the project in March 2017, it had provided education services to 10,126 children and livelihood services to 3,700 households.

Chinese national Gao Feng has been indicted by Liberian authorities for leading a large-scale illegal mining operation, depriving the Liberian government of over US$29 million in revenue. The indictment accuses Gao Feng and several associates of economic sabotage, tax evasion, and criminal conspiracy. In response to complaints, the Ministry of Mines and Energy launched investigations, resulting in raids on Gao Feng's mining sites. While seven associates were apprehended, Gao Feng and many others managed to escape. A writ of arrest has been issued alongside a travel ban to prevent them from fleeing the country. However, the case faces challenges due to alleged corruption and interference from some government officials. Illegal mining has had a devastating impact on Liberia's environment and economy, with unregulated mining practices leading to deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution.

The article titled "More Evidence Emerges FDA Permitted Illegal Timber Export" published by 'The DayLight' reveals that the Forestry Development Authority (FDA) of Liberia permitted the West Water Group to export 797 logs in March 2024, over half of which were illegally harvested. The FDA's log-tracking computer, LiberTrace, had red-flagged 413 logs in West Water's consignment due to multiple issues, but the FDA ignored these warnings and approved the shipment. The FDA dismissed The DayLight's initial investigation of the illegal export as an "intentional misinterpretation" of the facts. However, The DayLight traced some of the illegal logs back to the stumps of the trees from which they were harvested, supporting LiberTrace's findings. A relook at the LiberTrace analysis found several discrepancies, indicating a cover-up. Last year, West Water did not have a valid harvesting certificate, according to FDA's records._The illegal approval reduced government taxes on the logs and encouraged unsustainable logging and impunity.

Indonesian palm oil is a significant import for the US (with 2022 imports of palm oil being valued at $1.9 billion), and is used in various U.S industries from food production to cosmetics. Indonesia has been identified as the largest source of deforestation exposure for US imports for the period October 2021 to November 2023, with oil palm accounting for 96.7% of this exposure. This exposure is linked to the fact that the expansion of palm oil plantations in Indonesia to meet global demand has led to massive forest loss, as forest areas are cleared to make way for production. US palm oil imports are inextricably linked to the palm oil industry in Indonesia, which is characterised by widespread corruption and bribery, and there is a general lack of transparency in palm oil companies' political activities and how they can interfere with government policies. Notably, high-profile cases such as that of palm oil tycoon Darmadi highlight how corruption facilitates illegal land conversion and deforestation. Damardi was sentenced to 15 years in prison for bribing officials to convert protected forests into palm oil plantations, resulting in substantial environmental damage. The production of palm oil in Indonesia is also associated with exploitative labour conditions and human rights abuses. Workers on plantations often endure poor working conditions, low wages, and lack of job security. Indigenous communities, such as the Ibans and Orang Rimbas,_ face land dispossession and livelihood disruptions due to the expansion of palm oil plantations.

In 2023, Kenya's Western Regional Mining Officer suspended gold mining in Vihiga County due to increased illicit activities and violent disputes. The region is believed to contain immense gold deposits and foreign companies have been condemned for attempting to mine without proper licences or work permits. In addition, unlicensed firms have been found posing as artisanal miners in order to evade taxes. This has caused a significant loss of revenue for the Kenyan government, subsequently prompting the suspension of all activity. This comes after six Chinese nationals were arrested for illegal mining activities, including operating without the necessary licences and work permits required. The area has been declared a conflict zone, and the moratorium is said to remain in place until all mining operations comply with legal regulations. Local leaders and residents have been urged to support the enforcement to restore order and legal compliance in the mining sector.

Mongabay reports that Indonesian prosecutors have charged three major palm oil companies, Permata Hijau Group, Wilmar Nabati Indonesia, and Musim Mas, with corruption related to a cooking oil shortage in 2022. It was revealed that executives from these companies had bribed a trade ministry official to secure export permits for their crude palm oil. These permits allowed the companies to bypass the government-imposed domestic market obligation (DMO) and domestic price obligation (DPO). The DMO required companies to allocate a certain quota of palm oil for the domestic market to ensure supply during the shortage. The DPO capped the selling price of palm oil domestically to keep it affordable for consumers. Overall, the company's fraudulent behaviour allowed them to sell palm oil abroad at higher prices rather than adhering to domestic price caps and quotas intended to address the shortage. This corruption caused state losses estimated at 6.47 trillion rupiah ($432 million). The executives and the official have already been convicted and jailed, with sentences recently extended.

Widespread cocoa-driven clearance of forests in the Ivory Coast has led to farmers in the country moving across the border into neighbouring Liberia to create new cocoa plantations. Long one of the world's leading cocoa producers, Ivory Coast faces challenges such as ageing tree stocks and climate change that has led to declining production in the country. While farmers are leasing the land for these new plantations from Liberian landowners, the cocoa is being illegally trafficked back into the Ivory Coast and mixed in with Ivorian cocoa. This makes it exceedingly difficult to identify and trace source of cocoa being exported from the Ivory Coast, which could then violate environmental protection laws such as the European Union's regulation on deforestation free products.

The 2023 Trafficking in Persons Report on Kenya assesses the country's efforts and challenges in combating human trafficking. Key findings include concerns about inadequate resources for victim protection, limited legal safeguards for vulnerable populations, and the prevalence of trafficking in refugee camps and informal settlements. It was reported that traffickers exploit Kenyan children in labor trafficking in cattle herding. Recommendations urge Kenya to strengthen law enforcement responses, increase funding for victim services, and address the root causes of trafficking through education and economic empowerment. The report emphasises the importance of international cooperation and partnerships to combat cross-border trafficking networks effectively.

In Kabaena, an island off the coast of Sulawesi, Indonesia, the lives of the Bajau people are threatened by the rapid expansion of nickel mining. The Bajau Indigenous community is the last nomadic sea tribe in the world. Yet, it has been revealed that nickel mining companies have been illegally clearing protected forests in surrounding areas. In doing so, they fail to employ the FPIC (Free, Prior and Informed Consent) process to consult with local communities. The scale of this deforestation, driven by nickel miners, has been immense, violating the rights of this Indigenous community and threatening their livelihoods. Indonesia's nickel mines have cleared at least 80,000 hectares of forest to extract nickel. Additionally, more than half a million hectares of Indonesian forest are within nickel concessions, putting them at risk of deforestation. This severely impedes the Bajau people's way of life, as their traditional stilted homes are exposed to increased flooding, and three children drowned between 2021 and 2023. Water contamination also causes illness, and the community, which relies on subsistence fishing, now has to sustain itself by venturing further into the sea.

According to The Diplomat, the Indonesian government has charged Harvey Moeis, a prominent businessman in the mining sector, with corruption related to illegal tin mining operations. Moeis is accused of colluding with officials from PT Timah, a state-owned mining company, to establish unpermitted mining operations on PT Timah's concessions. While some have held that the environmental damage caused by these operations can be estimated at $26 billion, others argue this is likely exaggerated and used to draw public attention to the case. PT Timah holds numerous mining permits and extensive land rights, mainly on Bangka Belitung island. The illegal mining activities took place there, with PT Timah allegedly allowing private firms to operate on its concessions and even leasing smelting equipment to them. This case emerged after increased scrutiny following PT Timah and other mining companies consolidation under MIND ID, a state-owned holding company. PT Timah's financial struggles, including a $28 million loss in 2023, prompted closer examination of its activities, revealing the illegal mining scheme.

According to Mongabay, two major Indonesian pulp and paper producers allegedly engaged in fraudulent activities to evade taxes. The companies, PT Toba Pulp Lestari (TPL) and Asia Pacific Resources International Holdings (APRIL), are accused of mislabeling exports to China, falsely declaring high-value dissolving pulp as lower-value paper-grade pulp. This misclassification enabled them to report lower revenues and reduce their tax liabilities in Indonesia. Mongabay details how, from 2016 to 2018, APRIL produced 830,000 tons of dissolving pulp and exported 90% of it to China. However, none of these exports were recorded in Indonesian customs as dissolving pulp. This alleged misclassification may have reduced APRIL's revenue by up to $242 million and avoided $60 million in taxes. Ultimately, the fraudulent activities contributed to significant tax revenue losses for Indonesia, amounting to $168 million between 2007 and 2018.

According to Earth.org, a monitoring exercise by Indigenous peoples and local communities in Indonesia has revealed widespread fraud and forgery in the country's "certified legal" timber industry. The Indonesian Independent Forest Monitoring Network (JPIK) and PPLH Mangkubumi found numerous cases of illegal logging, record manipulation, forged export certificates, and bribery. Illegal practices were discovered throughout the supply chain, from logging companies to woodworking shops and exporters. Firstly, it was found that logging companies were cutting down trees outside their legally permitted concessions. These trees were tagged with legality certificates to falsely declare that the wood came from within the permitted areas. In North Maluku's Central Halmahera district, logging companies used legal documents from local landowners to cover illegally logged timber. Some companies even paid locals to perform illegal logging on their behalf, thereby distancing themselves from direct involvement. In terms of exports, several exporting companies in Central Java sold forged legal documents, known as v-legal certificates, to furniture companies lacking required certificates. This fraud enabled the export of uncertified wood products. These forged certificates were sold for 2 million to 8 million rupiah ($140 to $560) per container, making it a lucrative illegal business.

According to Amnesty International, after Honduran President Xiomara Castro took office in January 2022, he promised to protect national parks and end open-pit mining. However, two years later, communities in Tocoa, living in protected areas of northern Honduras, face increased harassment and violence while defending local rivers crucial for their survival. The report explains that the conflict began in 2012 when the Honduran Congress declared the area a national park, aiming to shield it from heavy industries. However, in 2013, Congress reduced the park's core area, allowing mining permits to be granted. The establishment and operation of iron mines in the area without proper environmental impact assessments has caused pollution in the Guapinol and San Pedro rivers, negatively affecting the local community's water supply. Local communities, claiming they were neither informed nor consulted about these concessions, organised resistance efforts, which were met with brutal repression. In 2019, a violent eviction of a protest camp led to the arrest of many community members. The failure of authorities to adequately investigate the attacks and murders related to this repression reflects systemic neglect and corruption within the country's governmental systems. The community's calls for justice have been widely ignored by authorities, with investigations stalled and no arrests made.

According to Mongabay, an investigation by the Earthworm Foundation into the Belgian company Socfin's oil palm plantations in Cameroon and Sierra Leone has confirmed several human rights abuses, including sexual violence and land conflicts. The investigation revealed that in Cameroon, the Socfin Agricultural Company (SAC) was found lacking in due diligence and safeguards. This has resulted in pollution in rivers, lakes, and lagoons near the company's activities, affecting local water sources that communities depend on. There were also instances where the company failed to implement measures proposed in environmental assessments to mitigate air pollution, impacting the health and environment of nearby communities. The investigators also noted widespread issues of sexual harassment and gender-based violence at the plantation. In addition, there are ongoing disputes over land and lease agreements. Issues with the implementation of concession agreements and compensation schemes were identified, showing that promises made to local communities have not been fully honoured. In response to such human rights violence and pollution, recommendations for strengthening reporting mechanisms were made. Some progress has been observed with a land mapping exercise, yet scepticism persists about Socfin's accountability and effectiveness in implementing changes.

In Honduras' Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, organised crime and drug trafficking are significantly contributing to environmental degradation and social instability. The UNESCO site, vital for its biodiversity, faces rampant illegal cattle ranching and land clearing by narcotraffickers seeking to launder money through cattle farming. These criminal groups exploit the absence of effective law enforcement and weak governance, using the remote area to grow their drug operations and clear land for illegal ranching, which destroys forest habitats. Corruption further exacerbates the problem, with local authorities often complicit or powerless against these powerful criminal networks. The unchecked expansion of drug trafficking and organised crime into the reserve not only threatens the environment but also destabilises local communities.

Jacobs Douwe Egberts' assessment of Honduras reveals significant environmental crimes linked to coffee production, specifically illegal deforestation and land degradation. These practices are driven by the expansion of coffee farms into protected areas and forests, exacerbated by weak enforcement of environmental regulations and insufficient monitoring. The report highlights how illegal logging and land conversion for coffee cultivation contribute to the loss of biodiversity and climate change. Moreover, environmental crimes are often tied to broader socio-economic issues, such as land tenure conflicts and the exploitation of indigenous communities. These activities not only threaten the ecological balance but also undermine sustainable development efforts in the region.

Illegal timber and drug trafficking are closely intertwined in northeastern Honduras, particularly in the town of Dulce Nombre de Culmí. The nearby forests of pine, mahogany, and cedar feed a timber trade worth around $60-80 million between 2016 and 2018. However, environmental agencies warn that 50-60% of this trade comes from illegal logging, much of it from the country's northeastern natural reserves where drug trafficking is also prevalent. Culmí is the last settlement before entering the Río Plátano Biosphere, a protected forest where drug trafficking and illegal logging have crossed paths for over a decade. The mountains and plains surrounding Culmí are dotted with clandestine airstrips, many built during the drug boom a decade ago. These airstrips, carved from the dense forests in the area, were then used to sell wood to timber traffickers and drug trafficking groups. In Olancho, Yoro, and Gracias a Dios-three departments renowned for their timber production-drug trafficking groups are known to engage in timber trafficking. Groups of farmers, often migrants from the poorest areas of southern Honduras, settle in unpopulated lands in and around the Río Plátano Biosphere. There, they harvest wood illegally, often with protection from corrupt officials and politicians, as well as support from drug trafficking groups. The wood is usually cut without securing official permission from Honduras' Institute of Forest Conservation. It is then combined with legal shipments, mostly at the sawmills, either by falsifying logging permits or bribing police responsible for monitoring timber transport. Meanwhile, illegally harvested precious woods, such as mahogany and cedar, usually head north along clandestine routes to the department of Gracias a Dios, and from there to processing hubs such as La Ceiba. These are the same routes that drug shipments travel along.

A Guatemalan palm oil company, linked to an oil spill into Guatemala's Pasion River and to numerous human rights abuses, has been charged with corruption and fraud. According to Friends of the Earth, Reforestadora de Palma S.A. (RESPA) was involved in an immense fish kill along the Pasión River in 2015 due to pollution from their processing plant, affecting 12,000 people. The company was charged with "ecocide" but the ruling was not enforced after the murder of a key plaintiff, indigenous leader Rigoberto Lima Choc. Subsequent investigation revealed REPSA's involvement in several illegal activities such as corporate corruption and environmental mismanagement. Such issues are systemic in Guatemala, where corruption is high, with REPSA being amongst nine companies other charged with influence peddling and bribery. Four high-level executives, including directors Hugo and Juan Milton Molina Botrán, face arrest orders. In addition, REPSA is also allegedly involved in several human rights abuses, rampant in Guatemala's palm oil sector. Despite the devastating impact of this scandal, the Rainforest Action Network reported in 2021 that Cargill and Nestlé had quietly resumed sourcing palm oil from REPSA. These commercial ties were suspended following the 2018 arrest of REPSA executives, but have since resumed.

Organised crime groups engaging in drug trafficking and the illicit palm oil trade often exploit environmental reserves in Honduras. There is a rapid spread of oil palm plantations in the country, as palm oil is increasingly a high earning and low production export. Palm oil accounts for about 40% of global demand for vegetable oil as both food and fuel, with annual production having more than quadrupled since 1995. Palm oil, however, presents a serious threat to the biodiversity of the wetlands and the water quality of communities, among other environmental and health threats. Making matters worse, illegal palm oil crops are increasingly being harvested by drug traffickers and other criminals in Honduras, with illegal plantations occurring across national parks and other environmental reserves. Investment in palm oil can provide criminals with a seemingly legitimate reason to use and control land in certain areas, as well as seemingly legitimate income that can be used to launder criminal proceeds.

A Venezuelan human rights organisation revealed that after being forced to leave Guyana, members of the Warao Indigenous community were forced to work for no pay in illegal gold mines. For up to three weeks, around 1,500 members of the community were unable to flee this situation of slave-like exploitation. This began in May 2021, when the Warao were rounded up and taken to work in illegal mines in Kumaka, a northern coastal area of Guyana. Guyanese recruiters enticed Warao individuals to work under false pretences, promising jobs as vegetable pickers. Instead, these individuals were sent to work in the mines under hazardous and inhumane conditions. Guyana has received thousands of Venezuelan refugees, with significant Warao migration starting in December 2020. Migrants face various exploitative schemes, with those in paid work receiving less than 50% of the average salary. Due to this precarious situation, the Warao community is at risk of being exposed to the criminal economy along the Venezuela-Guyana border, including the smuggling of drugs, oil and contraband goods.

The Ecuadorian community of Barranquilla de San Javier, located near the northern border with Colombia, is fighting to retake its land from a palm oil company that has allegedly used questionable permits and expensive lawsuits to maintain a hold on the area. The Afro-descendant community has lived on this land since at least the 1600s and received official recognition and a land title in 2000. Despite these protections, their ancestral lands have been illegally appropriated by Energy & Palma, a company operating under La Fabril Group, which supplies palm oil to global corporations like Pepsico, General Mills, and Nestlé. Since Energy & Palma began operations in 2006, the community has reported significant environmental damage. The company's plantations have degraded the quality of land crucial for subsistence farming and have polluted local water sources with agrochemicals, causing health issues among residents. These operations have led to the contamination of rivers and drinking water, contributing to illnesses and diminishing the community's food security.

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), a leading cobalt supplier, is grappling with environmental and human rights issues due to industrial cobalt mining. A report by RAID and AFREWATCH reveals that toxic pollution from cobalt mining in and around Kolwezi, the heart of DRC's cobalt industry, is devastating the lives of hundreds of thousands of Congolese people. The report challenges the narrative of 'clean' and 'sustainable cobalt' promoted by multinational mining companies. It highlights the impacts of water pollution, including health issues among local residents and destructive consequences on local ecosystems and agriculture. The report underscores the urgent need for sustainable practices and effective regulations to protect the DRC's communities and environment and calls for companies buying cobalt to ensure responsible sourcing.

According to AML Intelligence, U.S. government officials have issued several warnings to Exxon Mobil, urging them to avoid business dealings with Nazar Mohamed and his son, Azruddin, two prominent figures in the Guyanese mining industry. The Mohameds are suspected of money laundering, drug trafficking, and gold smuggling. Indeed, the Mohameds are under investigation by the DEA, FBI, and Homeland Security for allegedly smuggling Colombian cocaine and Venezuelan gold, and laundering money for drug traffickers, including sanctioned Russian nationals. Reports indicate that such illegal gold trafficking funds armed conflicts and supports criminal networks. Despite these allegations, the Mohameds assert that their trade relations with American companies are legitimate. U.S. authorities have warned Exxon of such suspicions, yet AML Intelligence reports that Exxon Mobil has proceeded with a $300 million deal to build an onshore logistics base with the Mohameds in April 2022. In response, the U.S. authorities are considering sanctions against the Mohameds, which could force Exxon to sever ties with them.

In the context of Exxon Mobil's oil extraction operations in Guyana, the article uncovers significant challenges related to organised crime and drug trafficking. The influx of foreign workers and the rapid development brought about by the oil boom have attracted criminal networks seeking to exploit the newfound wealth. These networks are involved in drug trafficking, money laundering, and other illicit activities, complicating efforts to maintain law and order. The article highlights that the oil boom has strained local infrastructure and governance, making it difficult to address the growing influence of organised crime effectively. Corruption and weak enforcement of laws further exacerbate the problem, allowing criminal organisations to flourish. The situation demands robust international cooperation, stricter regulatory frameworks, and enhanced local policing to combat the pervasive influence of organized crime and mitigate the risks associated with drug trafficking in this rapidly evolving economic landscape.

According to an InSight Crime analysis, illegal jade trafficking is on the rise in Guatemala, particularly in the coastal region east of the country known as a cocaine corridor. This high-value gemstone is in high demand in China, leading to an increase in illegal extraction and transportation operations. These operations are allegedly facilitated by high-level authorities and politicians, according to investigations by the Public Prosecutor's Office. On October 1, Guatemalan police seized a container with 10 tons of unprocessed jade that had been extracted near Morales, one of the most important cities in Izabal. Prosecutors suspect a network of political influences facilitating the entire operation, as the traffickers needed to circumvent mining and environmental controls before the jade left the port of Santo Tomás de Castilla, on the Caribbean coast of Izabal.

A Mongabay report warns that organised crime is exerting unprecedented pressure on Guatemala's largest rainforest, the Maya Biosphere Reserve. The reserve has faced a wave of land invasions since the beginning on 2024, including in previously untouched areas such as Naachtún-Dos Lagunas Biotope. The invaders, often heavily armed, are backed by criminal groups seeking to exploit the government's agrarian reform policies to launder money through cattle ranching and drug trafficking across the Mexican border. As a result, the reserve is experiencing severe threats from deforestation, illegal livestock farming, and forest fires. In March 2024, a patrol discovered extensive markings and a road being cleared in Mirador National Park, signalling a planned large-scale invasion. Despite arrests and patrols, the encroachment persists. Mongabay also explains that the situation is exacerbated by the political transition with the inauguration of President Bernardo Arévalo, whose government supports rural and Indigenous communities. Proposed reforms to Guatemala's protected areas law could loosen restrictions on agriculture and livestock in the reserve in order to address longstanding issues related to land ownership, further endangering the area.

In Sayaxché a region located in the Petén Department of Guatemala, the expansion of palm oil cultivation has resulted from aggressive, and often coercive, land acquisition. The growth rate of palm plantations in the region increased from 465 hectares in 2000 to 28,554 hectares in 2010. To acquire such a vast expanse of land, palm companies have used tactics based on deceit and coercion, resulting in aggressive land grabbing. Land grabbing is carried out through intermediaries who pursue persistent persuasion, often offering upfront payments. Some intermediaries will also pressure local farmers to sell their land by making false promises, deceitfully giving the impression of short-term financial gain. Indeed, many landowners are promised new, lucrative employment opportunities, which either fail to materialise or are, in reality, informal and poorly paid. Additionally, palm companies may use community and religious leaders to exert social pressure on landowners to sell their properties. Overall, this aggressive, large-scale land grabbing has transformed the landscape from a diverse pattern of land ownership to large contiguous areas under palm cultivation. Local landowners are often left in dire economic situations, with no job opportunities remaining, forcing them to relocate.

In March 2020, the news organisation Channel 4 uncovered child labour on coffee farms in Guatemala. The investigated farms were found to be supplying beans to international giant's Starbucks and Nespresso. The investigation revealed children as young as eight working up to 40-hour weeks in harsh conditions, earning as little as £5 a day. These children were paid based on the weight of coffee beans they picked, with sacks weighing up to 45kg. Both Starbucks and Nespresso, part of Nestlé, faced criticism and legal scrutiny for allegedly violating international labour standards set by the U.N.'s International Labour Organisation. Despite such claims, child labour persisted across farms used by Starbucks until 2019. Starbucks responded with a full investigation and confirmed no recent purchases from implicated farms, while Nespresso suspended purchases pending its own investigation. Both companies expressed zero tolerance for child labour but acknowledged the need for further improvement in their supply chain oversight.