In 2022, Singapore authorities intercepted their largest seizure of rhino horns to date when South African national Gumede Sthembiso Joel was caught at Changi Airport transporting 20 pieces (18 from White Rhinoceros and 2 from the Critically Endangered Black Rhinoceros) from Johannesburg to Laos. The case marked a turning point in Singapore's wildlife trafficking enforcement, with Joel receiving the maximum sentence of two years imprisonment under the country's Endangered Species Act—the heaviest penalty imposed for wildlife smuggling in the nation's history. The prosecution revealed Joel had agreed to transport the contraband in exchange for flight tickets and payment, highlighting the role of couriers in transnational wildlife crime networks. Following this case, Singapore amended its legislation, tripling maximum jail terms and doubling fines for illegal trade in CITES Appendix I species. The incident demonstrated the growing regional commitment to prosecution, as evidenced by Southeast Asian authorities' seizure of approximately 420kg of rhino horn across 19 trafficking incidents between 2021-2023, with Vietnam imposing a record 14-year sentence in a similar case. It also embodied the importance of on-the-ground personnel: it was a security officer who set off a series of actions that led to Joel’s arrest when they noticed boxes wrapped in cling film containing organic items shaped like horns in x-ray scan images.

Corruption is one of the most important facilitators of the illegal wildlife trade, and its effects can be seen in every stage of the illegal wildlife trade supply chain. In an effort to better understand corruption in this context, TRAFFIC analysed a series of court cases in southern Africa. In one case, five suspects in Zambia were found in illegal possession of two rhino horn pieces without a certificate of ownership as required by the Zambian Wildlife Act of 2015. Two of the accused were local magistrates, and a Ministry of Tourism spokesperson stated that “We strongly suspect that this was an inside job involving one of our officers.”

According to an EIA investigation of corruption in rosewood trafficking in Zambia, Chief Kafula Musungu II (a senior chief in the Muchinga Province) allegedly received a special permit to export 100 containers of rosewood logs as a reward for delivering votes to President Lungu in the presidential election. Though suspended after only 38 containers were exported, the chief formed a joint venture with a Chinese businessman who provided vehicles and cash payments to facilitate access. According to the Chinese partner, the army issues export licenses for each container under presidential authorisation, with military personnel overseeing loading operations and providing safe passage through checkpoints. This arrangement bypasses normal forestry regulations and allows exploitation of customary lands, with profits concentrated among chiefs and foreign investors rather than benefiting local communities.

According to an EIA investigation, the state-owned Zambia Forestry and Forest Industries Corporation Limited (ZAFFICO) has been used as a front for illegal rosewood trafficking since 2017. While officially appointed to export seized illegally logged timber stockpiles, ZAFFICO issues "special permits" that enable well-connected traders to transport and export freshly harvested rosewood logs despite export bans. Chinese trafficker "Mr. D" revealed that these permits cost approximately $15,000 in bribes (called "government fees") per container, with an estimated 50 containers exported monthly over a two-year period. The scheme is allegedly protected by high-ranking government officials, with one trafficker claiming the operation is "protected by the party" and functions as a "joint venture with the central committee" of the ruling Patriotic Front party.

A 2021-2023 TRAFFIC investigation revealed an alarming prevalence of illegal wildlife trading online in Vietnam, identifying 22,497 posts advertising products derived from protected species including elephants, tigers, rhinos, pangolins, and endangered turtles. Despite national laws prohibiting such trade and carrying penalties of up to 15 years imprisonment, sellers operated openly across social media platforms, particularly Facebook and Zalo, using code words and emojis to evade detection algorithms. The investigation uncovered concerning trends, including the emergence of wildlife-derived "glues" containing mixtures of threatened species and the advertisement of 23 out of 26 native turtle species, many critically endangered. While Zalo's implementation of a community policy led to a decrease in advertisements on their platform, this merely shifted traffic to Facebook, highlighting the “whack-a-mole" nature of enforcement.

According to the Environmental Investigation Agency, Vietnamese-led criminal syndicates operate in the illegal wildlife trade with sophisticated hierarchical structures involving syndicate heads, specialist transporters, independent operators, and workers. These networks have trafficked at least 56 tonnes of ivory seized in Vietnam and 20 tonnes seized en route to Vietnam since 2009, with actual trade volumes likely being much higher. Their operations span multiple African and Asian countries, using complex concealment methods such as hiding ivory in hollowed-out logs, fake stones, and agricultural products. The syndicates maintain extensive corruption networks that facilitate border crossings, with one ivory trafficker claiming to have successfully smuggled nearly 13.5 tonnes of illegal ivory in just three separate shipments from Mozambique to Vietnam in 2015, demonstrating the industrial scale of this criminal enterprise.

In 2017, Irish citizen Michael Hegarty received an 18-month prison sentence in the US followed by three years of supervised release for his role in a wildlife trafficking operation. Hegarty facilitated the illegal transportation and concealment of a libation cup carved from endangered rhinoceros horn from the US to the UK. In many jurisdictions, it is legal to trade wildlife products such as ivory domestically if they were acquired prior to the introduction of CITES regulations – but not to traffic them internationally. The illegal activity began in mid-April 2012, when Hegarty and an accomplice travelled with a Miami resident to a North Carolina auction. A second accomplice served as their bidder and successfully purchased a rhinoceros horn libation cup. After the cup was delivered to Hegarty and his first accomplice in Florida, the accomplice smuggled it out of the United States in his personal luggage. British authorities later arrested the accomplice and two other Irish nationals in London as they attempted to sell the cup to a buyer from Hong Kong SAR. Hegarty was subsequently apprehended through an INTERPOL Red Notice and extradited from Belgium to the US. His accomplice, currently serving time in England on separate charges, will face additional wildlife trafficking charges in Florida upon release.

In 2023, Vietnamese authorities confiscated over seven tonnes of elephant tusks smuggled via a well-known trafficking route from Angola. The shipment, which passed through Singapore before arriving in Haiphong City, was falsely declared as containing peanuts – a likely ruse by traffickers to mask its contents. This seizure follows another major discovery in Vietnam just weeks prior, when over 600kg of ivory was intercepted at Lach Huyen port. Despite Vietnam's ban on the trade of ivory and other endangered wildlife products, demand for items such as rhino horn, pangolin scales, and tiger parts continues to fuel the illegal market. While Vietnamese courts recently issued one of the country’s harshest sentences – 13 years’ imprisonment for smuggling more than 10 tonnes of wildlife products – trafficking remains widespread.

In February 2018, Chinese national Guan Zong Chen was sentenced to 19 months in prison for orchestrating a scheme to illegally export approximately US$700,000 worth of endangered wildlife products, including items made from rhinoceros horn, elephant ivory, and coral, from the US to China. In addition to the prison sentence, Chen was ordered to forfeit the seized ivory and pay US$700,000 in substitute assets. Despite a prior conviction in China in 2009 for trafficking ivory carvings purchased in the US, which prevented him from traveling internationally, Chen continued his illicit trade by enlisting others to legitimately purchase wildlife products at auction houses across several US states and smuggle them illegally back to China. In many jurisdictions, it is legal to trade wildlife products such as ivory domestically if they were acquired prior to the introduction of CITES regulations – but not to traffic them internationally. Chen’s co-conspirators included Chinese national Jin Jie Yang, who pleaded guilty in 2014 and was sentenced to time served in 2015, and Carla Marsh, a Massachusetts shipping business owner, who also pleaded guilty and received one year of probation in 2016.

On May 31, 2018, five individuals – William McGinness, Paul Tallman, Rene Rizal, Wayne Andrews, and Alex Madriaga – were indicted in the US for conspiring to smuggle birds protected under the CITES from the US to Taiwan. According to the indictment, the group allegedly submitted false documentation to the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) to facilitate the illegal export of 90 protected birds, including species such as parrots, macaws, cockatoos, and corellas, from the Port of New Orleans. Some of the birds were packed in crates with misleading labels. The USFWS intercepted 14 of the birds at Houston Airport before they could be shipped. McGinness faced additional charges of bird smuggling and three counts of falsifying records under the Lacey Act, while Tallman was also charged with smuggling and one count of record falsification under the same law.

In October 2023, the UK Border Force played a pivotal role in Operation Thunder, a global enforcement initiative targeting the illegal wildlife trade. Over the course of the month-long operation, UK officers made 145 seizures involving thousands of illegal wildlife products banned under CITES with Heathrow Airport being a notable hotspot. These included 5.5 kg of ivory, 434 live plants, over 1,000 health supplements containing illegal plant and animal products, a ceremonial headdress made with big cat fur, vulture and falcon eggs, and 53 live CITES-listed birds.

In a landmark case for the UK, seafood trader Gilbert Khoo was convicted in 2020 for illegally trafficking approximately 5.3 million critically endangered European eels from Spain to East Asia via the UK, in what authorities estimate was a £53 million black market operation. This three-year investigation, led by Cefas’ Fish Health Inspectorate (FHI) in collaboration with the UK Border Force and National Crime Agency, culminated in the first prosecution of its kind under the Trade in Animals and Related Products Regulations 2011. Khoo hid the live eels under other fish and exported them to Asia, evading strict export controls designed to protect the species. A major breakthrough occurred in 2017 when Border Force officials seized a 200 kg shipment of juvenile eels at Heathrow, destined for Hong Kong SAR. The FHI not only built the case but also arranged for the eels' safe repatriation to Spain. The case highlights both the scale of Environmental Crime involving endangered aquatic species and the critical role of coordinated enforcement in combating it.

In November 2024, UK authorities seized over 5,000 wild bird eggs in the country's largest-ever bust of its kind, highlighting the ongoing threat of illegal wildlife trade. This operation, part of the international crackdown known as Operation Pulka, began in Norway in 2023 and has since led to the seizure of over 56,000 eggs and the arrest of 16 individuals globally. Despite being outlawed under laws such as the UK’s Wildlife Countryside Act of 1981 and CITES regulations, the illicit collection and trade of wild bird eggs – especially from birds of prey prized for falconry – remains lucrative, driven by private collectors and international networks. Experts warn that the trade not only violates conservation laws but also contributes to the decline of already threatened bird populations, compounding threats from climate change, disease, and habitat loss.

Dubai serves as a prominent transit hub for ivory from Africa to Asian markets. The most common route identified in 2017 was from Harare, Zimbabwe, through Dubai, and onward to Hong Kong SAR. Nearly one-fifth of ivory seizures in Hong Kong were identified to have transited through United Arab Emirates airports, predominantly Dubai, before arriving. Smaller packages of ivory (less than 1 kilogram) often pass through Dubai's airport hidden in passenger clothing, while heavier consignments are placed in carry-on bags. Traffickers use special handmade vests with hidden compartments to move small pieces of ivory, taking advantage of Dubai's busy port and airport infrastructure where transit consignments are less likely to be thoroughly checked.

Great apes including orangutans, bonobos, chimpanzees, and gorillas are trafficked to Dubai via air from central Africa (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Cameroon, Guinea, and Nigeria) and Southeast Asia (Indonesia). Upon receiving an order, traffickers in countries like the Democratic Republic of the Congo notify "collector" counterparts to move animals by river or road to capital cities, where they're prepared for shipment with fraudulent CITES paperwork. Common air routes include direct flights to Dubai or flights from Ethiopia to Muscat, Oman, from where the animals are transported by land across the Hatta border. Smugglers often sedate the animals with veterinary drugs like ketamine. Prices vary significantly by species, with orangutans costing approximately US$15,000-$20,000, chimpanzees fetching around US$40,000, and bonobos and gorillas commanding between US$100,000-$250,000 in the United Arab Emirates black market.

The Chaimat network operated a sophisticated timber smuggling operation in Thailand that primarily trafficked protected Siamese rosewood to China via Laos and Vietnam. Their operation was highly organised - they used convoys of five vehicles where one scouted ahead for police checkpoints, three transported the illegally logged and trafficked timber, and another served as a decoy. Drivers were paid 20,000 baht (US$620) per trip, and a used-car dealership called "Big Car" owned by Kampanart's ex-wife Ketsirin supplied rotating vehicles to avoid detection. The network laundered nearly 1 billion baht (US$29 million) from Vietnam through currency exchangers in Laos into Thai bank accounts, with rosewood increasing in value by up to 900% when smuggled across borders, ultimately fetching up to US$80,000 per ton in China's booming hongmu furniture market. In 2014, Kampanart was on his way back from an abortive attempt to purchase Siamese rosewood when he was intercepted at a mobile checkpoint in what appeared to be a routine traffic stop. Police found 4.7 million bhat (about US$150 000), seven bank deposit books in Kampanart’s name and 10 ATM cards, as well as a book recording past transactions of Siamese rosewood and tiger body parts. A corresponding financial investigation which concluded in 2021 found that the crimes Kampanart had committed over the years were evidence that his assets had not been acquired honestly or legally. However, it proved more difficult to pursue a successful criminal prosecution for each of the cases owing to insufficient evidence, even though several individuals associated with the investigation had been arrested multiple times for possession of pangolins, ivory and Siamese rosewood and for breaches of wildlife and forestry legislation. Ultimately, the investigation was successful in identifying 115 assets accumulated by the family network that would be subject to forfeiture and become property of the state.

In September 2021, Dubai officials intercepted 64 falcons concealed behind boxes of vegetables at the Hatta border crossing with Oman. This illustrates a common smuggling route for falcons from the Arabian Peninsula into Dubai. Falcons are also trafficked by air from Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and South Asia, with the United Arab Emirates recording 35 cases of birds trafficked through airports between 2009-2017. Smugglers employ creative methods such as sedating birds with sleeping pills, binding them with tape, and concealing them in modified suitcases with ice packs. Upon arrival, the birds are sold to wealthy clients, often in private, invite-only affairs at their residences, with a single smuggled bird potentially fetching up to US$400,000.

A significant concern in the illegal cheetah trade is the fraudulent misrepresentation of wild-caught animals as "captive-bred" to circumvent CITES regulations. One telling example reveals how 16 supposedly "captive-bred" cheetahs were exported from Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates to Armenia between 2009 and 2015, despite Bahrain having no known cheetah breeding facilities. This case illustrates how traffickers exploit legal loopholes, as only two registered cheetah breeding facilities exist worldwide (both in South Africa), and cheetahs notoriously breed poorly in captivity. Gulf facilities reported only 304 total captive births since 1994 with a 31% mortality rate for cubs under six months, and no births have been reported since 2016. The practice of labelling wild-caught cheetahs as captive-bred effectively masks their true origins and contributes to the continued decimation of wild populations in East Africa.

The Star Tiger Zoo in Chaiyaphum, Thailand, operated by Daoruang Chaimat, served as a front for wildlife trafficking operations moving endangered species between Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and China. While officially registered as a legitimate business in 2011, investigators believed the zoo supplied major trafficking networks, including the infamous Xaysavang network. Financial investigations revealed suspicious accounting - the zoo reported assets worth 23.84 million baht (US$763,000) in 2012 but claimed only 4 million baht in income against 6 million baht in expenses, effectively operating at a loss while paying no income taxes. A police raid uncovered illegal wildlife at the property, and Daoruang's Vietnamese connections through her biological father (who worked for Vietnam's Forestry Department) and adoptive father (employed by the State Bank of Vietnam) were found to have facilitated international trafficking routes for pangolins, tigers, ivory, and other endangered species.

In September 2022, a kingpin of wildlife trafficking – Boonchai Bach – was sentenced to five years in prison for wildlife trafficking. While Bach remains on the run from authorities, the case was a breakthrough for criminal cases against wildlife traffickers, marking a turn from a previous attempt to convict Bach in 2018 that was thrown out by the courts.  A professional smuggler controlling the Thai gateway via Laos to Vietnam, Bach and his family were involved in trafficking contraband from rhino horn to ivory from Africa. In some cases, Thai sex workers were used to smuggle the teeth and claws of lions out of South Africa, with the assistance of a corrupt airline worker in Johannesburg and a corrupt airport official in Bangkok. Following the first failed attempt to convict Bach, police pivoted to anti money-laundering tactics, using wealth investigations to identify criminal activity. They have since seized his vehicles and some US$11 millions in assets. Police and prosecutors hope that data from Bach’s seized assets can be utilised to build a larger, multi-country case.

Between 2014 and 2015, Zanzibar Port emerged as a significant transshipment hub for illegally logged Malagasy timber bound for Asian markets. Three major timber seizures during this period revealed that traffickers were using Zanzibar as a strategic transit point for timber originating from Madagascar and destined primarily for China and Hong Kong SAR. In a notable 2015 case, traffickers attempted to legitimise their shipment using fraudulent CITES export permits, discovered when they tried to use a certificate number designated for exporting livestock from Tanzania. This pattern reveals how wildlife traffickers exploit Tanzania's strategic port location and weaker regulatory oversight in Zanzibar to move contraband between Africa and Asia.

A landmark case of international cooperation led to the disruption of a sophisticated wildlife trafficking network when a Ukrainian woman was intercepted at Bangkok's Suvarnabhumi Airport with 116 endangered tortoises hidden in her luggage. The smuggled reptiles – including critically endangered pancake tortoises, radiated tortoises, and vulnerable Aldabra giant tortoises, all protected under CITES – were destined for the exotic pet trade. After fleeing Thailand before prosecution, the suspect was later apprehended in Bulgaria through an INTERPOL Red Notice and extradited to Tanzania in 2023. This case triggered a broader investigation that ultimately led to the arrest of 14 additional suspects from multiple countries including Egypt, Indonesia, Madagascar, and Tanzania, demonstrating the transnational nature of wildlife crime networks. After more than two years, the surviving tortoises were repatriated to Tanzania as evidence against the smugglers.

Between 2009 and 2014, Tanzania's elephant population was decimated by 60% due to rampant poaching, prompting the government to establish the National Taskforce on Anti-Poaching (NTAP) to disrupt wildlife trafficking networks. This strategy led to the September 2015 arrest of Yang Fenglan, a Chinese businesswoman known as the "Ivory Queen," who was convicted in 2019 of leading an Organised Crime syndicate that trafficked 860 elephant tusks valued at over $6 million. Despite never being caught with tusks or at a crime scene, prosecutors successfully built a case using financial investigations, property records, and testimony from witnesses including a watchman, taxi driver, and restaurant employee. Yang's conviction sent a powerful message to other wildlife trafficking kingpins and demonstrated Tanzania's commitment to combating the illegal wildlife trade.

Sri Lanka has recently emerged as both a source and transit hub in the illegal wildlife trade network, particularly for Indian star tortoises. This shift became evident in June 2017 when the Sri Lankan Navy intercepted a dinghy from India carrying 2,098 live star tortoises, followed by another seizure of 1,200 tortoises in Kalpitiya in December of the same year. The island nation's significance in the smuggling network was further confirmed when authorities seized 223 star tortoises near Colombo's international airport in October 2021, arresting two Indians and one Sri Lankan. Wildlife experts note that the Sri Lankan variety of star tortoise is particularly valued by collectors for its sharper shell design, commanding premium prices in the black market. Despite the elevation of star tortoises to CITES Appendix I in 2019, enforcement remains challenging, with most arrested smugglers simply paying fines without deeper investigation into trafficking networks.

In 2016-2019, the Wildlife Justice Commission conducted "Operation Dragon," a covert investigation that uncovered an extensive tortoise trafficking network spanning India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Thailand. The operation identified 200 persons of interest and exposed eight criminal networks specialising in smuggling Indian star tortoises. A key breakthrough came when investigators recorded notorious wildlife trafficker Wasim Sheriff (alias Machli) attempting to sell 560 tortoises in a Bangkok mall, boasting of connections with airport insiders across multiple countries. This led to his arrest in October 2017 with 1,012 tortoises.

In March 2018, Spanish authorities in collaboration with EUROPOL dismantled a major transnational reptile trafficking network, seizing over 600 endangered or protected reptiles originating from the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. The investigation began when Dutch officials arrested three Spanish nationals smuggling 250 Mexican reptiles worth approximately US$186,000. The criminal network used "mules" to transport animals internationally and employed document falsification to "launder" protected species, even freezing dead specimens to reuse their legal documentation for similar trafficked species. This case demonstrates the sophisticated methods used by wildlife traffickers and the challenges authorities face in combating the global reptile trade, which represents 28% of all animals seized worldwide. It also exemplifies Spain’s role as a key transit and destination country for the illegal wildlife trade globally, and the importance of enforcement efforts in this area.

After eight years of coordinated efforts, the San Diego Zoo received eight critically endangered Fijian iguanas in April 2025 that had been seized from illegal wildlife traffickers in Spain in 2017. These iguanas were part of a larger confiscation of over 600 reptiles. The zoo's geneticists are now working to determine each iguana's origins to potentially incorporate them into conservation breeding programs or eventual repatriation. This case highlights both the persistent threat of reptile trafficking in the illegal pet trade and the complex international collaboration required between Spain's environmental authorities, Fijian government agencies, and conservation organisations to protect endangered species.

In April 2025, Spanish authorities rescued 19 exotic felines from a home in Majorca, arresting a Russian couple connected to an international wildlife smuggling ring. The raid uncovered a caracal, two servals, 16 hybrid cats, and travel documents for over 40 additional animals from Russia, Belarus, and China. This case exemplifies how social media has fuelled demand for exotic big cats as status symbols among wealthy individuals. According to authorities, “the detainees sold various animal species internationally through internet portals, including white tigers, black leopards, hyenas, and pumas”.

South Africa's lion bone trade exemplifies how legal wildlife markets can be exploited by criminal networks to facilitate broader trafficking operations. From 2016 to 2019, export records reveal that nearly half of all lion bones shipped from South Africa (which has the world’s only commercial lion-farming industry) were ostensibly destined for Laos but were actually rerouted to Vietnam, with shell companies linked to the notorious Xaysavang wildlife trafficking network serving as primary buyers. These trafficking operations employed sophisticated financial crime techniques: shipments were systematically undervalued (listing $50-100 per skeleton when actual values ranged from $1,250-2,150), permits were fraudulently reused past expiration dates, and consignments were routinely packed with more skeletons than declared. The five shell companies that purchased most lion bones were registered to fake addresses in Paksan, Laos (home base of the Xaysavang Network), yet Laotian customs recorded zero imports while Vietnamese records showed hundreds of skeletons arriving – demonstrating how traffickers manipulate international trade documentation to conceal illicit supply chains.

In 2018, a BBC investigation uncovered a deep web of corruption within South Africa’s judicial system that allegedly enables the illegal rhino horn trade. A whistle-blower known as “Fresh” testified to acting as a middleman between rhino horn traffickers and a court syndicate, facilitating bribes to lawyers, magistrates, and prosecutors to protect high-profile poachers like Dumisani Gwala. Despite Gwala’s arrest over three years ago with rhino horn in his possession, his trial has been repeatedly delayed, allegedly due to bribes paid to court officials. A confidential report submitted to the Magistrates' Commission suggests a broader pattern of racketeering involving senior judicial figures. Activists and investigators, such as Jamie Joseph and former police officer Jean-Pierre Roux, have also faced threats and job dismissals for exposing these networks. The inaction against those implicated threatens not only South Africa’s already dwindling rhino population but also the integrity of its entire justice system.

In April 2022, South African officials at Cape Town International Airport intercepted a sophisticated wildlife trafficking operation when they became suspicious of cardboard boxes labelled as "toys" being exported to China. Upon inspection, authorities discovered not children's toys but 23,000 endangered succulents carefully wrapped in toilet paper. This wasn't an isolated incident – less than a year later, another shipment labelled as "mushrooms" yielded approximately 12,000 succulents packed in onion bags. These cases highlight the adaptability of wildlife traffickers, with one police investigator noting, "It never stops. You find out their one method, and they come up with another smuggling idea." The trafficking of these endangered succulents threatens biodiversity in regions like the Succulent Karoo, which spans South Africa and Namibia and is home to over 6,000 succulent species, 40% of which exist nowhere else in the world. According to TRAFFIC, an international wildlife crime investigation organization, more than one million illegally harvested succulents representing 650 different species have been seized in transit through southern Africa since 2019, with roughly 3,000 trafficked specimens intercepted weekly within South Africa alone.

One South African abalone exporter has described sophisticated methods of corrupting customs officials in order to facilitate illegal exports. Rather than simply offering direct bribes, the exporter had assistants track an official's personal habits, discovering the official frequented a particular casino weekly. The exporter began providing credit vouchers for the casino, allowing the official to "have some fun." After establishing this pattern of gifts, the exporter requested "a favour in return" – allowing abalone shipments safe passage through the airport without inspection. This calculated approach to corruption highlights how wildlife trafficking networks identify and exploit the personal weaknesses of government officials.

The illegal cycad trade in South Africa uniquely targets a primarily domestic market, unlike abalone and rhino horn which flow to Asian consumers. Poaching operations typically involve a lead poacher or intermediary who often recruits workers under false pretences—not informing them about the protected status of cycads or the illegal nature of the activity. These groups uproot the endangered plants from wild populations and sell them through a chain of intermediaries before reaching retailers who market them to wealthy South African consumers in urban economic hubs. This deceptive recruitment practice demonstrates how criminal networks exploit uninformed labour to extract protected species.

In an interview with TRAFFIC, a South African intermediary described how his involvement in the illegal abalone trade "snowballed" from a small beginning. Initially hired as a "front vehicle" driver to scout for law enforcement while others transported abalone, he quickly graduated to transporting the product himself as a "back driver" for higher pay. Eventually, he saved enough money to become a partner in the operation, investing in purchasing abalone directly from divers. He ultimately became "a boss" responsible for recruiting drivers, securing processing facilities, and ensuring safe delivery to Chinese buyers who controlled exports. This progression illustrates how participants can move up the illicit supply chain, with roles becoming increasingly profitable at each level.

The illegal cheetah trade from East Africa to the Arabian Peninsula represents a sophisticated smuggling operation moving an estimated 300 cubs annually across the Gulf of Aden. Traffickers transport the cubs hidden in hampers, crates, or cardboard boxes on dhows traveling from Berbera in Somaliland to Aden in Yemen – a journey of just over seven hours. From Yemen, the animals are moved by road or boat to Saudi Arabian animal markets or delivered directly to traders who market them throughout Gulf states via social media platforms and private chat groups. A single investigation identified over 2,000 cheetahs advertised online between 2010-2019. This network persists despite all Gulf states having laws prohibiting commercial trade in wild cheetahs, with enforcement remaining minimal – as evidenced by the United Arab Emirates's single seizure of four cheetahs since enacting a 2016 ban on private ownership of exotic pets.

In 2021, a WWF analysis of timber trade data revealed a puzzling pattern: the Dominican Republic imports substantial quantities of Peruvian timber that far exceed its potential domestic consumption needs, with no recorded re-exports. This suggests the country may function as a transit point for illegal timber laundering operations originating in the Amazon. Additionally, researchers identified consistent export over-invoicing from Peru, particularly in sawn wood shipments, where discrepancies reached $2.6 million in 2015. These patterns represent clear red flags for illicit financial flows, highlighting how certain countries can serve as strategic pass-through markets that facilitate the global illegal timber trade through deliberately misleading customs documentation and corrupt practices.

In late July 2020, two cheetah cubs were rescued near Borama, a Somaliland city close to the Ethiopian border, after enduring 25 days in the hands of wildlife traffickers. The cubs were discovered severely dehydrated and underweight, requiring immediate intervention from local community members until a proper rescue team arrived. This case highlights the typical trafficking route from Ethiopia across the porous 500-mile border into Somaliland, where cubs are often taken from mothers in the wild by opportunistic herders or dedicated poachers. With an estimated price of US$200-300 in Somaliland, these cubs could have fetched up to US$15,000 in Gulf state markets had they survived the treacherous journey – though mortality rates exceed 60% during transport.

According to a report by the Environmental Investigation Agency, the 2002 seizure of 6.2 tonnes of elephant ivory at Singapore port revealed the sophisticated operations of a transnational wildlife trafficking syndicate that persisted for nearly three decades despite law enforcement interventions. The network, initially formed through a partnership between Malawian businessman MacDonald John Zulu Gwedeza and Taiwanese national Fong Ken Hsieh in the late 1980s, evolved to include Malaysian trafficker Peter Wang who orchestrated at least 19 ivory shipments between 1994 and 2002. Although the Singapore seizure temporarily disrupted operations, the syndicate demonstrated remarkable resilience, with driver Charles "Chancy" Kaunda rising through the ranks to continue operations between 2010-2015, shipping 14 containers of contraband to East Asia. The network further evolved into the Lin-Zhang syndicate from 2014 onwards. This case illustrates critical failures in wildlife crime enforcement: despite significant seizures, key figures evaded meaningful prosecution due to weak international coordination, allowing the syndicate to adapt and continue operating from Malawi as a hub for two decades. Only in 2020-2021 did authorities finally achieve substantial convictions, with Lin Yunhua receiving a 14-year sentence for rhino horn trading and Money Laundering.

A recent prosecution in Singapore highlights the significant scale of illegal bird trafficking across the Malaysia-Singapore border, revealing how sophisticated smuggling networks operate. When authorities arrested pet shop owner Leow Seng Lee and two accomplices, investigators uncovered a smuggling operation responsible for trafficking at least 1,137 birds over just two months, including the endangered white-rumped shama. The case demonstrated several critical aspects of wildlife trafficking: the high mortality rate among smuggled animals (more than half the birds in one seizure died), the use of legitimate businesses as fronts for illegal activity, and the substantial financial incentives driving the trade. While this successful prosecution resulted from vigilant border control and thorough investigation by Singapore's National Parks Board and Immigration and Checkpoints Authority, bird smuggling remains persistent, with at least 2,130 birds confiscated in Singapore and 10,553 in Malaysia near their shared border since 2014, underscoring the need for continued bilateral enforcement efforts.

The critically endangered beluga sturgeon in Romania's Danube Delta represents a complex wildlife trafficking case, where conservation efforts clash with socioeconomic realities. Despite Romania's 2006 ban on wild sturgeon fishing, poaching remains widespread, with the Border Police filing 49 poaching lawsuits and seizing 520 kg of illegally caught sturgeon and 450 kg of caviar between 2015-2019 – numbers that local accounts suggest vastly underrepresent the actual scale of illegal harvesting. This continued poaching is driven by several factors: the extreme value of beluga caviar (selling for up to $1,865 per kilo), the failure to provide alternative livelihoods for fishing communities, weak penalties that typically result in suspended sentences, and alleged corruption across the 11 different state bodies responsible for enforcement. Although sturgeon farming was intended to replace wild caviar harvesting, a reported 70% of Romanian aquaculture caviar destined for export actually comes from poached wild sturgeons, revealing how sophisticated trafficking networks exploit enforcement gaps while local fishermen receive just a fraction of the caviar's final market value without meaningful consultation or economic alternatives.

Romania has emerged as a significant but under-scrutinised hub in the global illegal wildlife trade, serving both as a source country and transit point for high-value endangered species. Despite major incidents – including 1.2 tons of pangolin scales from the Democratic Republic of Congo seized in Turkey while en route to Romania, and 700 kg of critically endangered European glass eels worth over one million euros shipped from Romania to Thailand – Romanian authorities reported just two wildlife product confiscations in 2018 and claim no registered cases between 2018-2020. This stark enforcement gap is particularly notable when compared to neighbouring countries like Poland, which made dozens of seizures along its Ukrainian border during the same period. Conservation experts attribute Romania's minimal detection rates to potential lack of training among officials, difficulties in species identification, and possibly insufficient prioritisation of wildlife crimes, creating an enforcement blind spot that traffickers appear to be exploiting to move wildlife products from Africa and Eastern Europe to lucrative Asian markets.

In March 2018, a lone Philippine pangolin was found wandering a golf course in Cavite, far from its native Palawan habitat – likely due the animal's escape from the country’s booming illegal wildlife trade. Despite being a protected species, pangolins in the Philippines continue to be poached and trafficked for their meat and use in traditional medicine, with penalties for offenders often proving too lenient to act as a deterrent. Between 2018 and 2019, authorities intercepted nearly 6,900 pangolins – more than in the previous 17 years combined – highlighting a sharp escalation in trafficking. In one 2019 raid, over a ton of pangolin scales was seized from a suspected smuggler with ties to China. TRAFFIC, an international wildlife trade monitoring network, warns that these seizures likely represent just a fraction of the total trade. Despite occasional successful rescues and increased law enforcement activity, the Philippine pangolin remains critically endangered, with population declines estimated at up to 95% over four decades.

The COVID-19 pandemic revealed a shift in wildlife trafficking strategies as exemplified by the massive stockpiling of fossilised giant clam shells in the Philippines – with demand increasingly significantly as a result of searches for alternatives to ivory. While media reports indicated seizures of around 150 metric tons since October 2020, actual Philippine National Police-Maritime Group data showed a much larger scale - approximately 621 metric tons confiscated between January and April 2021 alone through nine operations. Interestingly, the highest number of wildlife seizures occurred during the strictest phases of pandemic lockdowns. This pattern emerged because police checkpoints implemented for COVID-19 restrictions freed up maritime personnel to focus on coastal patrols. However, the limited arrests (only 16 individuals despite the massive seizures) highlight the challenge of prosecuting those behind these trafficking operations.

The critically endangered Philippine forest turtle exemplifies the challenges in combating wildlife trafficking. Despite being notoriously difficult to breed in captivity (only successfully bred in 2018), private zoos and breeding facilities frequently advertise them online and falsely label them as captive-bred. TRAFFIC's research has uncovered advertisements for Philippine forest turtles in Chinese and Japanese online marketplaces during the COVID-19 pandemic, showing the persistent international demand. A 2015 seizure recovered 3,921 individuals - a number that exceeded scientific population estimates for the species in the wild, revealing both the severe scale of poaching and gaps in understanding their actual population status.

According to investigations by InSight Crime, corruption is widespread in relation to wildlife trafficking in Peru, from customs officials to those who patrol markets at the Regional Production Directorates. In some cases, the officials responsible for inspections at extraction zones often obtain their jobs because of personal connections, and some profit more from bribes than from regulating the wildlife trade. Broadly speaking, there are few legal repercussions for corrupt officials. A wildlife trafficking expert revealed that officials are fired if they are found to be corrupt, but few are prosecuted. Sometimes, the investigations are dismissed and the officials rehired. The same is true for companies caught exporting illegally-sourced wildlife: the same investigation found that while two cases have been passed to prosecutors in the last two years, accused companies have only had to pay a fine, and no charges have been levied against them.

The "Patrones de Ucayali" (Bosses of Ucayali) was a criminal timber trafficking network operating in eastern Peru until 2020. Led by Juan Miguel Llancari Gálvez, a former police officer and loan shark, the network specialised in illegally harvesting valuable hardwoods from the Amazon rainforest and laundering them into legal supply chains. The network specifically targeted tropical hardwoods shihuahuaco and estoraque, which are particularly prized for flooring and decking, especially by Chinese importers. The network employed a specialist who created falsified Timber Transport Permits (GTFs) and other required documentation, such as logging contracts, stamps from forestry authorities, invoices, and bank receipts. The network also maintained three police officers on their payroll who would escort shipments, distribute bribes at checkpoints, and alert drivers to the presence of patrols that weren't friendly. Despite an extensive investigation involving surveillance and wiretaps, the network's leaders were tipped off before arrests could be made, and the subsequent prosecution failed when a judge controversially ruled that no crimes had been proven.

In Peru's Madre de Dios region, the ancient shihuahuaco tree has become the newest victim in a wave of deforestation driven by timber trafficking. These trees, which grow for up to 700 years and reach heights of 50 meters, have replaced mahogany and cedar (protected since 2001 under CITES) as prime targets for illegal logging. Despite scientific evidence showing that shihuahuaco extraction increased 22-fold between 2000 and 2013, attempts to officially classify it as a threatened species have been thwarted by pressure from timber companies. According to Peru's Agency for the Supervision of Forest Resources and Wildlife (Osinfor), shihuahuaco represents 5.5% of all illegally extracted timber in the country, with nearly 4,000 cubic meters harvested illegally in 2018 alone. This case demonstrates how conservation efforts face powerful commercial opposition, creating a regulatory vacuum where one endangered species is simply replaced by another previously unprotected one.

A Trade Discrepancy Analysis conducted in 2021 revealed significant over-invoicing in timber exports from Peru to China, averaging $15.3 million per year and totalling almost $153 million over a decade. This pattern indicates potential fraud, as exporters may artificially inflate values to access Peru's Special Tariff Regime, which provides tax refunds for export-related costs. Meanwhile, Chinese importers consistently reported lower values, suggesting possible import Tax Evasion. The case demonstrates how international trade infrastructure and ambiguous commodity definitions create opportunities for illegal timber trafficking.

Researchers estimate that hundreds or thousands of primates are captured and trafficked annually in Peru, which is a megadiverse nation. While some are traded for food, artefacts and remedies, most are sold alive and locally as pets. According to a 2024 survey, 40% of Peruvians living in cities have admitted to purchasing wild animals such as protected reptiles, birds, and primates as pets, despite this being illegal. However, infectious diseases can be easily transmitted through trafficked animals. Indeed, in a recent study of monkeys that had been illegally trafficked in nine Peruvian cities, researchers found a total of 32 disease pathogens in their blood, saliva and faecal samples. These pathogens included mycobacteria, which causes tuberculosis, and parasites that cause Chagas disease, malaria and various gastrointestinal ailments. While wildlife traffickers and their families – who are most commonly bitten, scratched, and exposed to animals’ faeces – are most at risk of picking up diseases from trafficked monkeys, infected primates can also disseminate diseases more broadly, as they carry parasites that mosquitoes can pick up and spread to the surrounding community.

In December 2024, security forces in Molai community in Nigeria arrested three men suspected of being middlemen for Boko Haram, caught selling poached warthogs. According to Nigeria Forest Security Services officer Saddam Mustapha, terrorists operating from Sambisa Forest have developed a systematic operation where they either hunt wildlife themselves or coerce local hunters to poach animals and sell them through civilian intermediaries. The terrorists have even warned local hunters against hunting warthogs, not for religious reasons despite claiming the meat is "haram" (forbidden), but to monopolise this profitable trade. This case demonstrates how wildlife trafficking directly finances terrorism, with the profits enabling insurgents to purchase weapons, food supplies, and other essentials whilst maintaining control over local populations through intimidation and economic coercion.

In early 2017, Nigeria's CITES Management Authority reportedly issued around 4,000 export permits after the fact to authorise Customs clearance for over 10,000 containers of Kosso (Pterocarpus erinaceus) timber (rosewood) that had been detained at the Chinese border. At the time of their detention, Kosso was listed under Appendix III of CITES, and the shipments did not have the required valid CITES certificates of origin. It was alleged that industry actors bribed senior officials to facilitate the retrospective “legalisation” of the rosewood exports. CITES Resolution 12.3, which addresses Permits and Certificates, advises that Management Authorities should not issue permits retroactively and that importing countries should refuse such documents, as doing so creates a loophole that can enable illegal trade.

Since 2021, the Wildlife justice Commission has been working in close partnership with the Nigeria Customs Services, providing intelligence analysis, investigative support, and evidentiary assistance. As of April 2025, the partnership has facilitated 18 joint operations, leading to 42 arrests, the seizure of more than 25 tonnes of pangolin scales (95% of all pangolin scale seizures in Nigeria over this period) and over one tonne of ivory, and 12 successful convictions. In April 2025, for example, authorities targeted a high-volume supply chain network based in Lagos – specifically the Jakande Market, where a suspected key broker was apprehended along with over one tonne of pangolin scales.  Follow-up intelligence led officers to a warehouse in Efiran, where the alleged network leader, a second suspected broker, and two employees were arrested, and a further 2.762 tonnes of scales were recovered. These successes demonstrate the importance of public-private partnerships, and provide a potential model of best practice for other jurisdictions to replicate.

In Borno State, Nigeria, the depletion of elephant populations due to the Boko Haram insurgency has triggered an adaptive shift in wildlife trafficking. As elephants migrated across the border into Cameroon's Waza National Park, poachers and traffickers turned to warthogs as an alternative source of ivory. Local hunters now sell warthogs for meat (fetching up to _200,000/$125 per animal) at markets like Molai, while their tusks – valued at approximately _30,000/$19 each locally – enter a shadowy supply chain that stretches from Maiduguri to Lagos and eventually to international markets. By the time they reach international markets, these same tusks – especially when carved or scrimshawed – can fetch up to $1,800, representing a nearly 95-fold increase in value. This dramatic markup incentivises continued poaching despite conservation efforts. Online retailers in the United States openly sell warthog tusks for prices ranging from $15.99 to $80 per pound, while South African markets offer them for as little as $10 each. This transition illustrates how quickly trafficking networks adapt when one species becomes scarce, revealing the flexibility and persistence of wildlife crime even in conflict zones.

An analysis by TRAFFIC of CITES-related seizures in 2022 revealed the prevalence of permit fraud in wildlife trafficking in the Netherlands, which had the second highest number of seizures in the European Union. For example, authorities seized two salt-water crocodile leather belts originating from Australia, as the shipment was not accompanied by the required CITES import permit. Additionally, the CITES export permit was only issued for one belt, exemplifying the piecemeal approaches to documentation used by traffickers. There were also extensive plant seizures, with 4,000 live orchids originating from Taiwan, and 7,000 live Trumpet pitchers originating from China.

Myanmar's military has played a significant and often destructive role in Kachin State's wildlife trafficking ecosystem, both historically and particularly following the 2021 coup. Even before the coup, military authorities frequently undermined conservation efforts by facilitating environmentally destructive activities in supposedly protected areas. In 2006, the military granted permission to Yuzana Company to conduct agribusiness over 800 sq km within the Hukawng Valley Wildlife Sanctuary, and in 2008 it provided exploration rights to a Russian energy company and permitted commercial logging in the same protected area. Following the 2021 coup, the military's influence on wildlife trafficking has intensified as the junta enlists support from local militias to fight against resistance forces. According to local sources, "After the coup, the Rawang militia was present in every town and the military provided guns for them. The hunters used those guns provided by the military." These military-provided weapons have reportedly enhanced hunters' capabilities to target remaining wildlife. Furthermore, local conservation workers suspect that "military-aligned militias and Border Guard Forces are involved in facilitating the trafficking of high-value wildlife products into China." The coup has also undermined what little regulatory oversight existed, as Forest Department workers have either joined the civil disobedience movement or become too afraid to conduct field inspections, creating a regulatory vacuum where wildlife products are now sold openly in markets.

Myanmar exemplifies the complex challenges of combating illegal wildlife trafficking, functioning as both a source and transit hub for endangered species due to its rich biodiversity and weak enforcement mechanisms. Despite being a CITES signatory, the country has become a critical corridor for wildlife products – including tigers, elephants, pangolins, and rhino horns – flowing between South Asia, Southeast Asia, and China. While international wildlife markets in border towns like Mong La and Tachilek have been well-documented as key channels for illegal wildlife entering China and Thailand respectively, researchers highlight a concerning knowledge gap about domestic wildlife trade networks and their connection to these larger cross-border operations. The political instability following the 2021 military coup has further complicated conservation efforts, with experts now advocating for a national wildlife crime database to improve information sharing, identify trafficking hotspots, and implement targeted community-based interventions rather than purely enforcement-focused approaches.

The establishment of protected areas in Myanmar's Kachin State offers a cautionary tale about top-down conservation approaches that fail to integrate local communities. Beginning in the 1990s, the Wildlife Conservation Society partnered with Myanmar's Forest Department to establish a network of protected areas, including the 3,800 sq km Hkakabo Razi National Park (in 1998), the 2,700 sq km Hponkan Razi Wildlife Sanctuary (in 2003), and the 21,000 sq km Hukawng Valley – designated as the world's largest tiger reserve in 2010. These areas were designed to prevent hunting of rare and threatened animals such as bears and tigers, in demand for bear bile and trophies. Despite these impressive designations on paper, wildlife populations have dramatically declined, revealing a fundamental disconnect between conservation intentions and outcomes. Local residents report that when these areas were established, traditional sustainable practices like seasonal hunting restrictions were abandoned as communities lost their sense of stewardship. "In the past, our people had their own land where they could manage the environment and wildlife," explained a Rawang resident from Hkakabo Razi. "After Hkakabo Razi was designated a national park, those groups told the local people that they no longer owned the land. Since then, hunting has become uncontrollable." The parks' creation failed to consider traditional resource management systems or alternative livelihoods, as one environmental activist noted: "When the government tried to conserve the forest and wildlife, they didn't consider the local community's livelihoods. The case demonstrates how conservation approaches that exclude Indigenous stewardship can inadvertently accelerate biodiversity loss by breeding resentment and undermining traditional practices that once regulated sustainable resource use.

Myanmar witnessed an alarming 74% surge in online wildlife trafficking via Facebook in 2021, despite platform bans and internet restrictions following the military coup, according to a 2022 WWF report. This digital shift in illegal wildlife trade documented 11,046 wildlife items from 173 different species being advertised, including critically endangered Sunda and Chinese pangolins, Asian giant tortoises, elephants, bears, and various bird species. The trade poses significant public health concerns, particularly through posts advertising civets and pangolins – potential vectors for zoonotic disease transmission similar to SARS and COVID-19 – with researchers identifying coronaviruses in trafficked pangolins that could potentially evolve into human pathogens. Most concerning is the trade's flagrant nature, with buyers and sellers openly discussing illegal transactions and shipping wildlife on public transportation without concealment, reflecting the anonymity afforded by social media platforms and weakened environmental enforcement following political upheaval. While conservation groups have removed over 11 million social media posts globally, traffickers quickly reemerge in new groups, highlighting the urgent need for automated detection tools, cross-sector collaboration between technology companies, law enforcement, and conservation organisations, and greater public awareness of both biodiversity and public health risks.

In 2020, Myanmar began to permit private zoos to apply for captive-breeding licenses for 90 species – including endangered tigers, elephants, and pangolins – creating regulatory loopholes that criminal networks exploit. Intelligence reports suggest Myanmar may be hosting tiger farms that supply Organised Crime syndicates in Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam, particularly with tiger cubs, and functioning as a laundering hub where Thai-bred cubs are exported to Myanmar and then re-imported to Thailand to obscure their origins. This situation represents a significant threat to wildlife conservation as the socio-political turmoil has weakened environmental protections while creating new trafficking opportunities that service growing pet markets in southeast Asia.

In 2022, the Exotic Birds Saint Lucia hatchery near Uruapan, Michoacán, was caught illegally selling keel-billed toucans for 15,000 pesos (US$750) each, claiming they were legal because they carried leg rings and came with sales documentation. However, investigations revealed the facility only had permits to manage swans, pheasants and peacocks, and had not updated its management plans or submitted activity reports as required by law. Even after the facility’s registration was revoked, it continued operating online with a supposedly new registration number, exemplifying how registered facilities often serve as fronts for illegal trafficking.

In Mexico City's Sonora Market, white-fronted parrots, a protected species, are openly sold for 2,500 pesos (US$125) without legal documentation, while the New San Lázaro Market offers endangered Mexican axolotls for 800 pesos (US$40) and red-kneed tarantulas for 250 pesos (US$12). Market operators employ "hawks" who aggressively monitor for inspectors or people documenting illegal activities, creating an environment where protected species are sold openly despite their status under Mexican law and international conventions, demonstrating how public markets remain hubs for wildlife trafficking despite legal prohibitions.

In a case uncovered by the Center for Biological Diversity, a self-proclaimed police commander operating under the name "Exotic Paradise" offered to sell a baby sloth – increasingly in demand as an exotic pet – for 35,000-40,000 pesos (US$1,750-2,000), admitting it would be smuggled illegally across the Mexican border through Tamaulipas into the US. The seller acknowledged that no documentation would be provided since the animals are trafficked illegally, noting that "it's cheaper" this way. This case highlights how even law enforcement personnel may be involved in wildlife trafficking. Furthermore, between 80% and 90% of sloths that are trafficked die. Babies are taken from their mothers, often violently, and are then often malnourished, cramped in cages and physically abused. In many cases their claws – which sloths need to hang from trees – are cut to prevent them from hurting humans.

In March 2014, Singaporean authorities seized approximately 30,000 Madagascar rosewood logs aboard the cargo ship MV Oriental Pride at the port of Jurong. Valued at around $50 million, it represented the largest seizure of an illegally trafficked species in history. Despite clear evidence of falsified documentation – including doctored export permits and a fabricated bill of lading showing an incorrect port of departure – the case against the traffickers ultimately collapsed after five years of legal battles. The Singapore Court of Appeal ruled that since the logs were technically "in transit" and not formally imported into Singapore, they could not be seized under Singapore's Endangered Species Act. This case highlights the serious legal loopholes that traffickers exploit to trade illegally in wildlife.

By interviewing 53 individuals with knowledge of fishing boat smuggling routes and the wildlife trade – particularly in tiger parts – between Malaysia and Vietnam, a 2025 study uncovered a convergence between illegal wildlife trafficking and other criminal activities in the South China Sea, particularly involving fishing vessels. These boats serve dual purposes: conducting illegal fishing while simultaneously transporting people and wildlife products between countries. The Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency has seized thousands of boats carrying contraband valued at over $150 million USD since its establishment in 2019. Meanwhile, Vietnam has deployed fisheries control boats to patrol maritime borders and implemented the Boat Monitoring System to track vessel movement. Despite these efforts, the economic challenges facing the fishing sector in countries like Malaysia and Vietnam, combined with poor regulation of migrant worker employment, continue to create conditions favourable for trafficking both people and wildlife.

A 2025 study by Panthera, the wild cat conservation organisation, the Jeffrey Sachs Center at Sunway University, and ZSL, exposed a nexus between the lucrative illegal trade in tiger parts, and Human Trafficking and Forced Labour. The research identified key roles within these networks: poachers who hunt the animals, transporters who move the products, brokers who manage logistics for Vietnamese workers in Malaysia, traders who buy and sell wildlife products, and end consumers. According to the researchers, most tiger poachers operating in Malaysia originate from Vietnam's Quang Binh province, a poor, rural area vulnerable to climate shocks with limited employment opportunities. These individuals, skilled in bushcraft, often enter the illegal wildlife trade due to economic desperation. Many plunge their families into debt to cover travel costs to Malaysia, then accumulate additional living expenses while there. Research calculations indicate it takes approximately three months of high-risk forest expeditions before poachers break even financially. Network managers frequently confiscate the poachers' travel documents and identification, trapping them in a cycle of debt that incentivises more killings and creates conditions of indentured labour.

In September 2023, Teo Boon Ching, the so-called "Godfather" of wildlife trafficking in Southeast Asia, was sentenced to 18 months in prison by a US court. For over two decades, Teo operated as a specialist transporter and middleman in a vast transnational criminal network, moving rhino horns, elephant ivory, and pangolin scales from Africa to Asian markets. His sophisticated smuggling methods included concealing elephant tusks in nylon bags hidden within shipping containers filled with at least eight tons of beans or peanuts, using owned rather than rented containers to avoid scrutiny, and leveraging connections with local authorities to facilitate transit through Malaysian ports. According to the Environmental Investigation Agency, Teo charged between RM500-800 ($110-175 USD) per kilogram for his services – a shipment of elephant ivory could earn him RM800,000 ($175,000 USD) in fees alone. His 2022 arrest in Bangkok and subsequent extradition to the US represented a rare instance of successfully targeting a high-level operator in wildlife trafficking networks. Despite some conservation experts considering the 18-month sentence lenient given the scale of his operations, which included involvement in the largest seizure of pangolin scales and ivory in Hong Kong SAR's history in 2017, the case highlights the importance of international cooperation when it comes to prosecuting wildlife crime and disrupting the operational capacity of organised criminal networks involved in the illegal wildlife trade.

In May 2024, Thai authorities conducted one of the country's largest wildlife trafficking busts, seizing 1,109 endangered animals from Madagascar – including ring-tailed lemurs, brown lemurs, radiated tortoises, and spider tortoises. The operation was the culmination of an international investigation involving the Royal Thai Police, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Justice Commission, UNODC, and INTERPOL. The traffickers had moved the animals through a complex route spanning Indonesia and Malaysia before entering Thailand. Seven months later, nearly 1,000 surviving animals were repatriated to Madagascar in an operation sponsored by Qatar Airways and Airlink. This case illustrates the complex logistics of wildlife repatriation, the transnational nature of wildlife trafficking networks, and the necessity of public-private partnerships in combating wildlife crime.

In April 2025, Kenya Wildlife Service officers uncovered an unusual wildlife trafficking operation when they arrested two Belgian teenagers attempting to smuggle over 5,000 ants from Kenya to exotic pet markets in Europe and Asia. The 19-year-olds had stored the ants – including the prized Messor cephalotes, a large red harvester ant native to East Africa – in test tubes and syringes with cotton wool (environments that would keep the insects alive for weeks during transport). This case represents what authorities describe as "a shift in trafficking trends – from iconic large mammals to lesser-known yet ecologically critical species." The incident sheds light on the booming global ant-keeping hobby, where specimens like Messor cephalotes can sell for £99 GBP per colony in specialised online marketplaces. Scientists warn that this emerging trade poses significant biodiversity risks, as these ants play crucial ecological roles, harvester ants collect and disperse grass seeds throughout the African savannah and serve as food for species like aardvarks and pangolins.

In Madagascar, a crackdown on the illegal trade in Malagasy tortoises has led to a series of recent arrests. In 2024, authorities apprehended a Tanzanian national found to be transporting 800 tortoises in the northwestern coastal town of Mahajanga. This arrest prompted a major investigation in regions all around the country, including the capital, Antananarivo. Following this, in early 2025, authorities also apprehended four Chinese accomplices in Tanzania, and 19 further traffickers in Madagascar, many of which were arrested at the airport with tortoises in their suitcases. According to the investigation, the trafficking operation linked poachers who capture the tortoises from the wild habitat, with others who take care of temporary storage and local transport of the animals. Other intermediaries are then responsible for arranging for their export. Recent arrests suggest that some politicians also seem to have a stake in the apparently lucrative sector. A member of parliament, Roméo Christophe Ramanatanana, was arrested as part of the crackdown and charged with illegally transporting 112 tortoises to Antananarivo.

According to investigations by ENACT Africa, sandalwood trafficking networks operate sophisticated cross-border and maritime export operations that exploit regulatory gaps between East African countries. At the Kenya-Uganda border in Busia town, smugglers transport tonnes of sandalwood disguised in carton boxes via public buses from Nakuru to Busia at least three times weekly. At the border, smugglers pay KES 3,500 per 100kg bag for bicycle transport across the border and KES 100 per bag to border police as bribes. This "protection economy" extends to senior police officers who strategically remove roadblocks to allow vehicles carrying sandalwood to pass unhindered. Once in Uganda, Kenyan sandalwood is repackaged as Ugandan products and sealed by Ugandan authorities before being shipped back to Kenya for export through the Port of Mombasa. The scale of this operation is evident in police records at Kilindini Police Station, which documented the confiscation of 11 containers between 2015 and 2018, containing approximately 237 tonnes of sandalwood valued at $9.48 million USD. This trafficking route demonstrates how criminals exploit both regional regulatory differences and corruption within border security systems to facilitate the movement of illegal wildlife products to international markets in Asia.

In Samburu County, Kenya, a sophisticated network facilitates illegal sandalwood harvesting from forests. Local women perform the actual harvesting, supervised by "technicians" who ensure quality, while warriors (imuran) provide armed security. Chiefs act as gatekeepers, receiving payments of around KES 10,000 in "access fees" from brokers. Community rangers, meant to protect wildlife, are also paid off (approximately KES 20,000) to allow access to forests. Sandalwood trafficking in Samburu County is notably controlled by women traders who coordinate the entire operation. These businesswomen place orders through brokers, finance transport and logistics, hire technicians, and maintain protective relationships with authorities. Their influence extends to organising a "sandalwood traders' association" that pools funds to protect members, including allocating money to hire hitmen against enforcement officers who interfere with their operations. One senior police officer reported that women traffickers boldly introduced themselves as sandalwood traders and attempted to bribe him, demonstrating the network's confidence in their protection arrangements. This community-level operation has devastated local forests and placed the slow-growing sandalwood tree at risk of extinction, while the harvesters themselves receive only KES 100-150 per kilogram – a fraction of the international market value.

In Indonesia, orangutan capture, killing, harm (injury or harassment) and trade (possession, sale, purchase, exchange or barter) have been banned since 1932. These crimes are subject to maximum penalties of five years imprisonment and fines of IDR 100 million (the equivalent of approximately $7000 USD), but sentencing is generally lenient. Illegal killing and trade have been consistently identified as significant threats to orangutans for more than 50 years. In Indonesia, orangutans are killed opportunistically for bushmeat, as a pre-emptive step to prevent crop foraging or interaction with humans (or in retaliation for the same), and to obtain infants as pets. Obtaining dependent infant orangutans nearly always necessitates killing of the mother. Orangutans have been popular as pets in Indonesia for several decades – a situation that persists today. According to an academic study of wildlife crime, enforcement and deterrence patterns in Indonesia, the most prevalent interventions to address illegal activity related to orangutans – education and handovers of illegally held animals – have not seen an associated decline in relevant crimes. The authors argue that these tactics alone therefore appear insufficient to address orangutan-related crimes and, instead, substantial increases in patrols, investigations, arrests, and convictions, as well as community-focused solutions are urgently needed to halt the killing of and trade in orangutans.

In 2024, quarantine authorities in Lampung, Indonesia seized a solitary truck carrying 6,514 birds, believed to be the country’s biggest seizure of an illegal shipment of birds from a single vehicle. Lampung, at the southern tip of Sumatra, is home to some of Indonesia’s busiest ports and a transportation pinch point which has seen repeated seizures over the years. The traffickers used a closed truck concealing its cargo, and routed the shipment through a facility considered an alternative to Lampung’s main Bakauheni sea port. Crammed into 216 boxes, the birds were found in the vehicle in the province’s Bandar Bakau Jaya Port which ferries heavy vehicles crossing the Sunda Strait from Sumatra, where the birds originated, to Java, where bustling bird markets are located. While only 257 of the seized birds were from protected species, this case highlights the continued pressure on Sumatran birds, particularly species currently not protected under Indonesian law, to feed the massive demand.

Demand for shark products varies from affordable meat for local consumption to high-value export products like shark fins used as a culinary delicacy in Asia, as well as a range of other products such as shark skin and liver oil. International markets that cater to this demand drive overfishing of sharks which, coupled with low biological productivity, puts shark species at a higher risk of extinction when compared to most other vertebrates. In India, 26 sharks and rays have been accorded the highest protection status under local laws. However, India is also one of the world’s largest shark fishing nations. In India, shark meat is a local delicacy consumed by many people, especially along the Southern coast. According to a study of seizure trends by TRAFFIC between 2020 and 2022, Tamil Nadu is a particular hotspot for shark trafficking, accounting for 65% of the seizure incidents. Shark fin remains the dominant product, accounting for 82% of incidents. Finally, around 50% of seized products analysed were destined for parts of Asia, including Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, China, and Sri Lanka.

While the growth of the airline sector has facilitated the smooth transit of individuals and goods across the globe, it is also being exploited by traffickers to move illegal wildlife products quickly and with significantly fewer wildlife casualties in transit. An analysis of wildlife seizures in India’s airports by TRAFFIC between 2011-2020 found that several native wildlife species ranging from the Indian star tortoise to leopard cubs were seized. It also found many exotic species such as iguanas, pythons, and exotic birds were seized from check-in and hand baggage at various Indian airports during the study period. In India, wildlife is protected against hunting, trade, and other forms of exploitation through the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, as well as international agreements such as CITES. Despite the restrictions, however, wildlife trafficking continues. TRAFFIC’s study highlights the increasing misuse of airports for smuggling wildlife and its contrabands within India and across the regions.

Gibbons are tree-dwelling lesser apes, and one of the most threatened primate groups in the world. All gibbon species are listed under Appendix I of the CITES, the global wildlife trade convention, meaning their commercial trade is prohibited internationally. However, legal loopholes and weak enforcement mean the trade manages to thrive. Gibbons are a recent addition to the booming exotic pet trade in India, only beginning to arrive in 2023. In particular, northeastern India is emerging as a hotspot for illegal wildlife trafficking because some of its states share a land border with Bangladesh, noted by conservationists as a source for gibbons being trafficked into India and Myanmar, and a hub for regional wildlife trafficking. The region’s thick jungles and tough terrain also make it easy for traffickers to bring animals across borders without getting caught. Once the animals enter India, they’re transported to other parts of the country, where they end up as pets or in private zoos. According to the Gibbon Conservation Society in Malaysia, TikTok is fuelling demand for exotic animals by spreading posts of celebrities posing with such animals. Social media platforms also serve as a marketplace for trafficked animals, with poor enforcement of laws prohibiting such trade.

The scarlet macaw is Honduras’s national bird, with distinctive red, blue, and yellow feathers. However, its population has declined precipitously due to poaching. The bird is sold as a pet within Honduras and on the international market. Indeed, a source in the Honduran public prosecutor’s office told Mongabay that wildlife trafficking in the area generates thousands of dollars in revenues per trafficker each month. A scarlet macaw sold illegally on the international market can fetch up to $1,000 USD, and a great green macaw up to $3,000 USD. International demand has led foreigners to Honduras, with investigations finding that a Chinese national was paying locals to steal hatchlings from nests. The potential profits also incentivise impoverished locals to enter the trade, despite knowing that locals earn little money from macaw trafficking compared to the traffickers selling the animals in Europe and Asia.

Illegal timber and Drug Trafficking are closely linked in northeastern Honduras, a major cocaine corridor in this region. According to investigations from InSight Crime, criminal groups in the region have combined these two businesses to maximise their illicit profits. Here, there are significant forests of pine, mahogany, and cedar, many species of which are highly in demand on the international market and heavily endangered. Environmental agencies in Honduras have warned that 50-60% of the timber trade comes from illegal logging, much of it from the country’s northeastern natural reserves. According to the investigation, at least three large Drug Trafficking groups in this region engage in illegal logging. The criminal groups support poor farmers to harvest wood illegally, often with protection from corrupt officials. It is then combined with legal shipments, mostly at the sawmills, either by falsifying logging permits or bribing police responsible for monitoring timber transport. Precious woods, such as mahogany and cedar, travel from Gracias a Dios to processing hubs such as La Ceiba – the same routes that drug shipments often travel along.

According to an investigation by InSight Crime, in the coastal village of Kaukira, Honduras, fishermen have shifted from facilitating Drug Trafficking to harvesting sea cucumbers. When increased raids by Honduran authorities and the United States Drug Enforcement Administration disrupted cocaine smuggling operations after 2016, local fishing fleets – once used to retrieve drug packages dropped at sea – pivoted to supplying Asian markets with sea cucumbers. This transition was facilitated by Taiwanese and Vietnamese intermediaries who arrived in the region around 2010, financing boats, equipment, and advances to divers while establishing a cash-based black market that grew Honduras' sea cucumber exports from 550 tons in 2010 to an estimated 1,600 tons by 2018. A typical Honduran fishing boat collects approximately 3,000 pounds of sea cucumber per three-week trip, receiving about $8 USD per pound from middlemen, generating $25,000 USD per trip or roughly $150,000 USD per six-trip season for boat captains. However, these same sea cucumbers could fetch $230 USD per pound in Hong Kong's formal market according to 2015 estimates from the UN Food and Agriculture Organization.

In 2023, police in Spain and France arrested 27 people and seized 1.5 tonnes of live baby eels, as well as goods worth more than €2 million (£1.7 million), after breaking up a gang dedicated to breeding the critically endangered fishes and smuggling them to China. The officers also recovered tonnes of frozen baby eels, called elvers, which are prized as a delicacy in Spain and parts of Asia, that had not been subject to any food safety checks and were not suitable for human consumption. The European eel is critically endangered, subject to EU quotas on fishing and distribution, and its export beyond the bloc is strictly forbidden. Over recent years, however, the baby eels have caught the attention of many criminal gangs who smuggle the fish from Europe to Asia, where they can fetch up to €5,000 a kilogram. According to police, the criminal group was made up of fishers as well as business managers and wholesalers, who circumvented the legal supply of live baby eels by supplying them to citizens of Chinese origin who operated clandestine hatcheries in parts of Paris and Antwerp. They then organised trips to Asia for people who departed from European airports close to the hatcheries, smuggling eels in their luggage.

In the rural Rwandan village of Bugeshi near the Democratic Republic of the Congo border, the illegal wildlife trade flourishes through informal border crossings despite official checkpoints just miles away. According to an investigation by The Bridge Magazine, local moto-taxi drivers transport wildlife contraband including ivory and rhino horns using creative concealment methods – hiding products inside shipments of used clothing or food items that receive minimal inspection. Political tensions between Rwanda and Democratic Republic of the Congo since 2022 have created opportunities for smugglers, who exploit gaps in cross-border collaboration and enforcement. The rugged terrain along this border region – characterised by marshlands and biodiversity-rich landscapes – provides natural cover for illegal crossings. While the Rwanda Investigation Bureau reported investigating 24 wildlife crime cases involving 52 suspects in 2022/23, local sources indicate the actual volume of trafficking remains substantial. The borderland's reputation as a high-risk zone where armed groups operate creates both challenges for law enforcement and opportunities for smugglers who blend into the regular flow of informal cross-border trade to move their illicit goods undetected.

In 2023, the US banned three Congolese public officials and their wives from entering the country, claiming that the three had falsified permits to traffic protected species in exchange for bribes. According to a public statement, the officials abused their public positions by trafficking chimpanzees, gorillas, okapi, and other protected wildlife to destinations including China. The officials included current and former heads of the Congolese Institute for the Conservation of Nature (ICCN) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo Management Authority for CITES. Furthermore, one of the officers was previously suspended from the ICCN in 2021 for allegedly being involved in mismanagement and serious breaches of statutory duties, demonstrating a history of misbehaviour and the prevalence of corruption in relation to illegal wildlife trade in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a systemic failure enables the recycling and laundering of seized wildlife contraband back into illegal markets. Despite regular seizures of ivory by authorities, the Democratic Republic of the Congo lacks a centralised management system for these confiscated items. Instead, ivory is dispersed across multiple government entities, including the Central Bank of Congo, ICCN patrol posts, customs offices, courts, police stations, and local environmental services. This decentralisation creates perfect conditions for corruption and theft. In December 2022, authorities in Uvira, South Kivu province, seized nearly half a ton of ivory (representing approximately 20 slaughtered elephants), but environmental defenders report that the ultimate destination of this ivory remains unknown, making it likely the contraband will re-enter the black market. Some seized ivory bears markings suggesting it was previously in government custody, confirming the circular nature of this problem. Some wildlife defenders are urging the government to strengthen security systems and begin destroying seized ivory through burning to prevent its return to illegal trade channels – although such actions have also been criticised as being ineffective or potentially problematic, for example, by creating scarcity in supply and circulation which may drive up demand, or by failing to address the root causes of poaching.

Since late 2022, the southern portion of Virunga National Park has fallen under the control of M23 rebels and Nyantura police forces, effectively halting gorilla monitoring activities and increasing poaching threats. According to Oxpeckers, throughout other sections of the park, various militia groups including Mai Mai, FDLR (Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda), and ADF (Allied Democratic Forces) attack wildlife and facilitate cross-border trafficking. According to Kivu Security Tracker, the illegal cross-border trade of natural resources generates an estimated $175 million annually, with armed groups receiving approximately $50 million between 2017 and 2020. This creates a dangerous connection between wildlife crime and regional insecurity. Conservation efforts are further hampered by understaffed and poorly equipped eco-guards, frequent attacks on ranger stations, and the release of detained poachers and traffickers. The situation has become so dire in some areas that monitoring of endangered mountain gorilla groups has completely stopped, leaving young gorillas particularly vulnerable to capture by poachers.

The bushmeat trade in central Democratic Republic of the Congo operates through a complex network connecting remote forests to urban markets. According to a Mongabay investigation, porters make long journeys from forests near Salonga National Park to transport smoked bushmeat to local markets, where vendors sell meat from various protected species including primates. A porter might pay a hunter about $4.70 USD for a small monkey carcass and later net $25 USD for delivering a 25-35 kg load to markets. This trade in the meat and body parts of protected species has evolved from subsistence hunting to commercial exploitation, with hunters establishing forest camps to process large quantities of meat bound for Kinshasa's wealthy markets and international buyers. Wildlife populations near accessible areas have been depleted, forcing hunters deeper into protected areas. While local protein needs drive some demand, the volume of bushmeat in Lodja exceeds local requirements, with much being funnelled toward Kinshasa's 17 million inhabitants, where growing wealth has increased demand for wild meat as a luxury item.

In the remote town of Lodja in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mongabay has documented how the illegal wildlife trade has created a devastating economic incentive system that threatens endangered bonobos – which are in high demand as exotic pets. Local hunters can earn approximately $200 USD for capturing a live baby bonobo, while middlemen in towns like Lodja can make $450 USD per animal – substantial sums in a country where two-thirds of the population lives on less than $2.15 USD per day. The capture of a single infant bonobo typically results in the deaths of additional apes, as mothers and family members defend their young to the death. Indeed, a 2013 report on the illegal ape trade concluded that five to 10 animals die for every one taken from the wild. This trade is driven by wealthy international buyers, primarily in China, Libya, and the United Arab Emirates, where a single bonobo might ultimately sell for $300,000 USD.

In 2023, Colombian authorities shut down 40-50 warehouses near Bogota Airport, arresting 15 people and confiscating illegal wildlife worth about $12 million USD. According to a Guardian article on the case, the warehouses were used by a Chinese-run operation which was sending cryptocurrency to Colombia in exchange for animals from the Amazon rainforest.

In 2016, Colombian police busted the country’s largest wildlife trafficking organisation at the time, which made an estimated $80-140 million USD each month. According to police, the gang used codewords for different species, and paid farmers to go into animals’ natural habitats to capture them. 90% of the species trafficked by the group were endangered, including parrots, parakeets, turtles, macaws, flamingos, toucans, capybaras, and others. The animals were typically drugged and transported to collection centres in the homes of small traders. For some bird species such as toucans and macaws, buyers were paying between $4-600,000 USD. When the authorities discovered the organisation’s operations, they found that birds were stuffed into soda bottles or sedated and attached to traffickers’ bodies.

In September 2023, Colombian police seized over 200 young caimans – small relatives of alligators that are endemic to the wetlands and rivers of South America – from a small town called Sucre. They found the reptiles crowded in a damp pit at the back of the property, poached from local rivers. Young caimans are in particular demand for the high fashion market as their leather is more supple and thus more valuable. Despite growing efforts from authorities, however, it has been difficult to convict traffickers – police reported that they had caught the suspect in this case four times already, and there are suspected ties to the Gulf Clan, Colombia’s largest drug cartel, which may be involved in and be receiving a cut from reptile trafficking.

In April 2025, Nigerian officials arrested a Chinese national suspected of masterminding a transnational smuggling operation of pangolin scales. The arrest was linked to the seizure of more than 7 metric tons of pangolin scales in Nigeria in August 2024, following more than five months of on-the-ground surveillance. The seizure was estimated to be worth over $1.4 million USD, and authorities expected the arrest of the suspect to have lasting disruptive effects on the Nigeria-based criminal syndicates supplying the illegal wildlife trade.

Madagascar is home to some of the world’s most valuable rosewood. However, in the last decade, enormous demand from China has led individuals from all over the region to fell rosewood from the forests. While the rosewood trade has been banned in Madagascar for two decades, the government has issued brief exemption periods – muddying the legal waters by allowing traffickers to claim their wood was harvested during an exemption period and therefore legal. Furthermore, traffickers continue to smuggle rosewood out of the country by bribing government officials, before shipping rosewood through circuitous routes towards China, bribing inspectors to avoid inspections and mis-labelling the containers as vanilla or other products. The rosewood can then legally enter China with the ‘correct’ documents, typically acquired through bribery, despite being illegally felled.

There have been several reports of environmental defenders protesting the illegal rosewood trade in Madagascar being intimidated and imprisoned. In 2017, Clovis Razafimalala, who heads an environmental advocacy group based near Masoala National Park in northeast Madagascar, was arrested and held for 10 months while awaiting trial. He has a record of lobbying the government to prosecute timber barons and to reopen a local customs office to make it harder for criminals to smuggle rosewood out of the country. He was eventually convicted of destruction of public property and arson, fined $1,800 USD, and sentenced to five years of prison. However, like many other environmental defenders, he was immediately released on parole. In correspondence with Mongabay, Razafimalala explained that releasing him with a conviction and an unserved prison sentence that can be called in at any moment was an effort to “shut him up”. Two years prior, Armand Marozafy, another member of the same group, was convicted of defamation and served five months in jail for identifying two alleged rosewood traffickers in a private email.

Orchids are hugely diverse and make up more than 70% of all CITES-listed species. However, large volumes of illegal trade in endangered orchid species continue. According to a 2019 study on the orchid trade in China, researchers found trade in more than 400 species of orchids collected from the wild, involving more than 1.2 million individual orchids, potentially worth more than $14.6 million USD – in just one year. The researchers found that wild orchids were often mixed with nursery-bred orchids, with traders paying cheap labourers in countries like Laos and Myanmar to harvest wild orchids. In fact, the researchers found that some 100 species of orchids being sold in the southern China markets were not native. There were also no declared imports in the CITES trade database for the majority of the species, rendering the trade in breach of CITES regulations.

According to ENACT Africa, criminal syndicates and buyers from major cities in Cameroon, the Central African Republic, and Nigeria buy pangolins from poaching cells made up of locals based in pangolins’ natural habitats. In particular, Cameroon has emerged as a major transit country for pangolins trafficked from the Central African Republic, with traffickers bribing border and customs officials to secure ease of passage for illegal wildlife products and to provide false customs declarations for their shipments. Major markets for pangolin products include China, Thailand, Malaysia, and Vietnam, though there is also a route from Cameroon north through Chad and Sudan through which endangered animals such as pangolins are trafficked to markets in Arab countries.

In May 2024, the US levied sanctions on two companies (Mining Industries SARLU and Logistique Economique Etrangere SARLU) linked to the Wagner Group (now known as the Africa Corps), a private Russian military company that is backed by the Kremlin and active in many African countries. According to the US Office of Foreign Assets Control, the Wagner Group has established a vast security and business network in the Central African Republic, which includes involvement in illegal logging and timber trafficking.

In 2021, a joint operation between the United States and the Democratic Republic of the Congo governments led to the arrest of two foreign nationals for wildlife trafficking in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The authorities seized 938 kg of ivory and 34 kg of pangolin scales, worth around $3.5 million USD. The indictment alleged that the defendants paid bribes to authorities in Kinshasa to allow them to ship the commodities, and that they intended to conceal larger shipments in timber or corn to avoid detection.

According to the Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, armed groups have been active in Cameroon’s national parks and forest areas for the past two decades, and these groups have poached rare animal species to finance their activities. The Bouba Ndjida National Park, which is located close to Cameroon’s borders with Chad and the Central African Republic, is home to many important biodiverse species, and has also experienced high levels of poaching. The elephant population, for example, has significantly diminished following acts of poaching orchestrated by cross-border criminal groups. In 2020, a new armed separatist group called the MLC was established in the tri-border area between Cameroon, Chad, and the Central African Republic, and members of the group have been involved in clashes with the military near the national park. One of the MLC members who was arrested confessed that the illicit trade in animal products sourced from Bouba Njida is a temporary means of financing while they try to establish other income sources.

Due to the reduction of rosewood stocks in Nigeria, traffickers seeking to satisfy demand from China have been harvesting Cameroonian rosewood by bribing forest guards and Nigerian authorities. According to the Pulitzer Centre, Nigerian woodcutters fell trees in Cameroon, before smuggling the timber to Nigeria, where authorities are bribed to certify the logs as legally harvested in Nigeria. This then facilitates the export of containers of rosewood to China.

In 2021, two wildlife traffickers in Cameroon were arrested and prosecuted for the illegal possession and trafficking of nine protected species, including three African grey parrots and six pink-ringed parakeets. They were sentenced to five months in prison, reflecting the Cameroon government’s increasing crackdown on the wildlife trade. In Cameroon, wildlife trafficking in protected species can be punished with imprisonment up to three years and/or a fine of up to 10 million CFA francs, or approximately $16,000 USD.

Following a multi-year investigation, the Environmental Investigation Agency found that over 500,000 tons of timber – including large quantities of rosewood – have been exported from Mozambique to China every year since 2017, in direct violation of CITES and Mozambique’s log export ban. According to a Mozambique government report summarised by the BBC, al-Shabab insurgents in Mozambique have utilised the illegal timber trade to “fuel and finance the reproduction of violence”. In particular, the illicit trade in rosewood has been linked to the financing of Islamic-State linked militants in the northernmost province of Cabo Delgado, with an estimated revenue of $1.9 million USD per month. While data on the specific nature of insurgents’ involvement in the timber trade is scarce, there have been reports of firms paying a 10% protection fee to the jihadist groups to carry out illegal logging in forest areas. According to trading sources, an estimated 30% of the timber logged in Cabo Delgado is at high risk of coming from insurgency-occupied forests. Rosewood is then typically shipped to China, where huge volumes are imported.